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Vf  1 


Bulletin  3 1 I 


April,  1920 


isconsin 


aokicultukaij  experiment  station 

UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
MADISON 


I 


^ Sorghum  has  been  grown  and  manufactured  into  syrup  in 
Wisconsin  for  60  years.  The  annual  production  of  syrup 
for  the  last  50  years  has  ranged  from  200,000  to  a little 
•more  than  300,000  gallons.  In  1919  more  than  225,000  gal- 
lons were  produced. 

Sorghum  is  grown  principally  in  the  western,  central,  and 
southwestern  counties;  it  is  not  adapted  to  the  extreme 
northern,  north  central,  or  northeast  counties.  It  will  ma- 
ture in  any  section  where  dent  corn  will  mature.  It  will 
grow  on  any  reasonably  fertile  soil  that  is  well  drained. 
Soils  that  will  produce  corn  will  produce  sorghum.  It  is 
particularly  adapted  to  sandy  lands,  as  it  withstands  drought 
better  than  any  other  inter-tilled  crop.  It  does  not  exhaust 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  any  more  rapidly  than  do  other  in- 
ter-tilled crops. 

Sorghum  yields  from  8 to  15  tons  of  green  material  to  the 
acre,  from  which  70  to  150  gallons  of  syrup  can  be  manufac- 
tured. There  has  been  an  active  demand  for  the  syrup  and 
practically  all  of  it  has  been  consumed  in  the  community 
where  it  is  produced. 


^ 5 b 

r^o-3 


Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 

A.  H.  Wright 

Climate,  soil,  and  methods  of  farming  in  Wisconsin  are  all 
suited  to  the  development  of  a commercial  sorghum  industry. 
As  soon  as  factories  are  so  equipped  that  hand  labor  and  waste 
can  be  greatly  reduced,  wider  opportunities  in  the  sorghum 
business  are  open  to  both  the  grower  and  the  manufacturer  of 
the  syrup. 

The  demand  for  Wisconsin  syrup  is  always  good.  Only 
enough  is  produced  to  meet  the  local  demand  in  the  community 
where  it  is  made,  and  the  syrup  cannot  be  bought  in  the  grocery 
store  or  any  other  general  market.  Waste  in  growing,  hand- 
ling, and  manufacturing,  and  the  necessity  for  much  hand  labor, 
have  kept  the  sorghum  business  operating  on  a small  scale  to 
supply  local  demands.  At  the  same  time,  the  small  mill,  which 
supplies  these  demands,  fills  a definite  need  in  the  community 
and  will  continue  to  operate  after  the  industry  is  organized  on 
a commercial  scale. 

Hand  Labor  Required  by  Present  Methods 

Present  methods  of  handling  sorghum  require  a great  deal 
of  hand  labor  because  the  mills  established  in  this  state  are 
unable  to  handle  the  sorghum  unless  it  is  topped  and  stripped 
before  it  is  delivered  to  the  mill.  The  average  farmer,  con- 
sequently, grows  only  % to  V2  acre,  enough  to  supply  the  re- 
quirements of  his  family. 

Since  each  farmer  grows  only  a small  “patch,”  little  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  labor-saving  methods.  Good,  well- 
drained  soil  is  selected,  usually  in  the  corner  or  at  one  side  of 
a field  of  corn.  Sorghum  is  usually  planted  by  hand,  the  rows 
the  same  distance  apart  as  corn  rows.  The  crop  is  cultivated 
in  the  same  manner  as  corn,  with  the  exception  that  it  is  often 


509863 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


necessary  to  go  over  the  sorghum  as  least  once  with  the  hoe 
in  order  to  keep  the  weeds  under  control. 

In  harvesting  sorghum  the  leaves  are  usually  removed  first. 
They  are  stripped  off  by  hand  and  allowed  to  fall  to  the  ground. 
After  the  plants  are  stripped  and  while  the  cane  is  still  stand- 
ing, the  heads  or  seed  tops  are  cut  off  and  are  either  thrown  in 
piles  or  allowed  to  fall  to  the  ground.  In  some  cases  the  plants 
are  cut  first  and  headed  afterwards,  which  results  in  leaving 
-the  heads  practically  all  in  one  place.  In  either  case  the  work 
is  done  by  hand. 


FIG.  1.— SORGHUM  GROWS  W^ELL  IN  WISCONSIN 

nie  proper  kind  of  pure  amber  sorghum  can  be  depended  upon  to  make  a good  crop 

in  this  state. 


After  the  stalks  are  stripped  and  headed  they  are  tied  in 
bundles  and  hauled  to  the  syrup  mill.  The  amount  that  can  be 
hauled  at  one  load  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  roads, 
but  it  Avill  average  1%  to  21/2  Ions.  If  2 tons  are  hauled  at  a 
load,  it  will  require  from  four  to  six  loads  to  move  one  acre 
of  sorghum  from  the  farm  to  the  mill. 

Sorghum  Mills  Necessary 

Where  sorghum  is  grown  for  s^^rup  there  must  be  mills  to 
manufacture  the  syrup.  Hauling  to  the  mill  is  one  of  the 


SORGHtJM  FOR  SyRUP  IN  WISCONSIN 


5 


largest  items  of  expense.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that  sor- 
ghum be  grown  within  five  miles  of  the  mill.  Between  100  and 
150  sorghum  syrup  mills  operated  in  Wisconsin  in  1919.  The 
mills  vary  from  small  horse-power  outfits  with  a capacity  of 
50  gallons  of  syrup  a day  to  the  large  steam  power  plants  with 
a capacity  of  500  gallons  or  more  a day. 

These  local  mills  grind  the  sorghum  stalks  and  boil  the  juice 
down  to  syrup  for  the  grower.  They  charged  in  1918  and 
1919  from  40  cents  to  60  cents  a gallon  for  making,  or,  in  case 
they  manufactured  on  shares,  they  kept  one-third  the  syrup 
as  payment. 

An  average  acre  of  stripped  stalks  as  handled  at  the  mill 
will  yield  from  70  to  mor5  than  100  gallons  of  syrup,  75  gal- 
lons being  a fair  average.  The  grower  paid  in  1919  an  aver- 
age price  of  45  cents  for  having  the  syrup  made.  Very  little 
syrup  was  offered  for  sale,  as  practically  all  of  it  was  kept  on 
the  farms  that  grew  the  crop.  What  was  sold  brought  at  retail 
from  $1.25  to  $1.75  a gallon.  Considering  the  syrup  to  be 
worth  $1.45  a gallon  and  the  cost  of  manufacture  to  be  45  cents 
a gallon,  the  grower  received  $1  a gallon,  an  average  of  $75  an 
acre,  for  his  crop  delivered  at  the  mill. 

Present  Methods  Wasteful 

As  a means  of  furnishing  a supply  of  syrup  to  people  who 
live  in  the  neighborhood,  the  present  method  of  growing  sor- 
ghum and  making  syrup  is  satisfactory.  As  a small  community 
industry  it  is  of  considerable  importance,  but  from  a com- 
mercial standpoint  it  is  a troublesome  and  wasteful  business, 
requiring  too  much  time  and  hand  labor.  Hand  planting, 
hand  hoeing,  and  hand  stripping,  heading,  and  binding  are 
time-and  lalior-wasting.  In  addition,  the  leaves  are  nsually 
wasted  and  the  seed  is  not  used  to  advantage.  Even  when  the 
field  is  pastured  off  thei’e  is  a high  percentage  of  loss  in  the 
leaves  and  heads. 

Of  the  harvested  croy>  the  stripped  stalks  are  practically  the 
only  product.  When  these  stalks  are  ground  in  the  average 
local  mill,  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  juice  is  extracted.  The 
crushed  stalks,  called^ bagasse,  are  generally  left  to  rot  where 
they  are  piled.  In  other  words,  out  of  the  whole  crop  of  sor- 
ghum, practically  everything  is  lost  except  50  per  cent  of  the 
juice. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


Making  Sorghum  A Commercial  Industry 

Since  the  sorghum  business  has  been  found  profitable  in  spite 
of  the  waste  in  production,  it  would  surely  have  great  possibil- 
ities if  the  hand  labor  and  waste  could  be  avoided.  Methods 
are  now  being  used  which  accomplish  these  results.  Equipment 
for  manufacturing  sorghum  syrup  can  be  obtained  which  not 
only  rids  the  grower  of  most  of  the  hand  labor  in  the  field,  but 
which  also  makes  use  of  90  per  cent  of  the  total  crop.  Where 
such  equipment  is  used,  sorghum  is  grown  in  the  same  way  as 


—Courtesy  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agrrieulture. 

FIG.  2.-S0RGHUM  SYRUP  OUTFITS  MAY  CONSIST  OP  SIMPLE  EQUIPMENT 

Some  small  community  mills  use  the  open  pan  evaporator  heated  by  direct  furnace 
fire.  Properly  managed,  such  outfits  produce  an  excellent  quality  of  syrup,  but  the 
capacity  is  limited  and  much  hand  labor  is  required. 

corn,  is  harvested  with  a corn  binder,  and  delivered  to  the  syrup 
mill  just  as  corn  is  delivered  to  a silage  cutter.  The  mill  re- 
moves the  heads  and  separates  the  leaves  from  the  stalks.  The 
seed  is  dried  and  threshed  and  commands  a ready  market.  The 
leaves  may  be  run  directly  into  silos  and  when  so  handled  they 
make  an  excellent  quality  of  silage.  The  stalks  are  crushed 
with  high-power  mills  which  extract  75  per  cent  or  more  of  the 
juice.  The  stalks  from  which  the  juice  has  been  pressed  are 
used  for  fuel,  silage,  or  manure.  By  using  this  new  method  of 
handling  sorghum,  practically  nothing  is  lost. 

That  this  method  of  handling  is  a success  was  proved  in  the 
operation  of  a few  factories  in  the  United  States  in  1919.  The 


Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 


7 


Agronomy  Department,  after  making  careful  investigation  of 
the  methods  in  these  mills  and  the^  possibilities  of  sorghum  in 
Wisconsin,  consider  that  sorghum  is  a promising  commer- 
cial industry. 

Is  There  a Market  for  Sorghum  Syrup? 

Sorghum  syrup  produced  in  Wisconsin  during  the  last  sev- 
eral years  has  been  in  such  demand  that  it  is  practically  all  con- 
sumed in  the  locality  where  it  is  produced  and  the  public  rarely 


FIG.  3.— SOME  SMALL  OUTFITS  USE  STEAM  POWER 
In  this  type  of  syrup  mill,  power  is  furnished  by  a traction  or  a stationary  engine. 


has  an  opportunity  to  buy  it.  During  recent  years  practically 
all  who  grow  sorghum  do  so  in  order  to  supply  themselves  and 
they  do  not  have  it  made  on  the  shares  but  pay  for  manufactur- 
ing instead,  in  order  that  they  may  keep  it  all  for  their  own  use. 
As  a result,  Wisconsin  sorghum  syrup  is  seldom  obtainable  on 
the  market  at  any  price. 

The  sugar  shortage  has  renewed  the  interest  of  the  public  in 
sorghum  syrup,  but  there  was  a demand  for  good  syrup  long 
before  there  was  any  scarcity  of  sugar,  and  regardless  of  how 
abundant  sug-ar  may  become  in  the  future,  a continued  demand 
for  sorghum  syrup  can  be  expected. 

There  has  been  a stable  demand  for  Wisconsin  syrup  in  the 
past.  Since  very  little  public  attention  has  been  given  to 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


sorghum  during  recent  years,  it  has  become  the  common  belief 
that  the  industry  has  practically  disappeared.  The  records  of 
production,  however,  which  are  fairly  complete  since  1860, 
show  that  the  annual  production  of  sorghum  syrup  in  Wiscon- 
sin has  been  comparatively  constant,  and  that  the  production  in 
1919  compares  favorably  with  the  production  of  any  preceding- 
year  (Table  I). 


Table  I. — Production  of  Sorghum  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 


Year 

1859 

1869 

1879 

1889 

1899 

1909 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Gallons  produced. 

19,854 

74,478 

314,150 

219,070 

160,414 

139,667 

117,000 

180,000 

225.000 

I 

The  fact  that  225,000  gallons  were  produced  in  1919  and  yet 
Wisconsin  sorghum  syrup  is  not  on  the  market  indicates  that 
there  is  a demand  for  the  product  and  that  there  will  be  a 
market  for  any  reasonable  increase  in  production. 

The  production  of  sorghum  syrup  for  the  entire  United  States 
also  indiates  considerable  stability,  having  remained  about  the 
same  for  50  years.  The  records  which  are  given  in  Table  II 
also  show  that  the  industry  is  of  national  importance. 


Table  II. — Production  of  Sorghum  Syrup  in  the  United  States 


Tear 

1879 

1889 

1899 

1909 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Gallons 

produced... 

28,440,000 

24,235,000 

16,973,000 

16,532,000 

37,472,000 

29,274,000 

33,128,000 

Of  the  29,000,000  gallons  of  sorghum  syrup  produced  in  the 
United  States  in  1918,  80  per  cent  was  produced  in  the  following 
states,  given  in  order  of  their  importance : Alabama,  North 
Carolina,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Georgia  and 
Indiana.  Of  the  sorghum  syrup  produced  in  these  states, 
the  bulk  is  consumed  within  the  territory  producing  it,  though 
considerable  quantities  go  on  the  commercial  market. 

South  and  North  Do  Not  Compete  in  Sorghum 

Commercially  there  is  no  competition  between  sorghum  syrup 
produced  in  the  South  and  that  produced  in  the  North  because 
northern  syrup  is  so  completely  consumed  locally  that  it  does 


Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 


9 


not  go  on  the  general  market..  On  the  other  hand,  southern 
sorghum  syrup  is  not  very  common  in  the  markets  of  the  northern 
states.  The  northern  sorghum  syrup  evidently  has  the  ad- 
vantage in  quality  and,  when  sold,  commands  a better  price  than 
the  southern  syrup.  So  far  as  Wisconsin  is  concerned,  there- 
fore, competition  with  southern  sorghum  syrup  is  not  to  be 
feared  in  the  markets  of  this  state  or  other  states. 


FIG.  4.— MANY  WISCONSIN  MILLS  USE  STEAM  FOR  EVAPORATING 

A large  percentage  of  the  LoO  or  more  syrup  mills  in  the  state  are  equipped  with  large 
crushers  run  by  gasoline  or  steam  engine  power  and  with  boilers  to  furnish  steam  for 
boiling  down  the  juice. 

Relation  to  Other  Syrups 

In  addition  to  sorghum  syrup  there  are  several  other  im- 
portant American  syrups,  the  manufacture  of  which  constitutes 
an  important  industry,  totaling  100,000,000  to  150,000,000  gal- 
lons annually.  The  relative  importance  of  these  several  kinds 
of  syrups  is  shown  in  Table  III. 

Sugar  cane  syrup  is  the  most  important  syrup  produced.  It 
is  made  from  southern  sugar  cane,  a different  kind  of  plant 
than  sorghum.  The  process  of  manufacturing  is  practically 
the  same  as  that  for  making  sorghum  syrup,  that  is,  the  juice 
of  the  sugar  cane  is  extracted  by  means  of  crushing  rolls  and 
the  juice  boiled  down  to  syrup. 

Corn  .syrup  is  made  from  the  grain  of  corn,  by  treating  the 
starch  of  corn  with  mineral  acids. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


Molasses  is  a by-product  from  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  It 
is  that  part  of  sugar  plant  juices  which  will  not  crystallize  out 
as  sugar.  It  is  not  a syrup,  strictly  speaking,  but  it  is  often 
confused  with  both  sorghum  syrup  and  sugar  cane  syrup. 
Sorghum  syrup  is  commonly  termed  ‘‘sorghum  molasses”  and 
in  some  cases  spoken* of  as  “molasses,”  but  it  is  not  molasses 
at  all.  Black  strap.  New  Orleans  molasses  and  Louisiana 
molasses  are  grade  names  for  molasses  and  are  not  distinct 
products. 


Table  III. — Comparative  Importance  of  American  Syrups 
(Estimates  of  annual  production) 


Kind  of  syrup 

Annual  production  in  gallons 

Sugar  cane  syrup 

35-40  million 

Corn  syrup  

30-35 

Sorghum  syrup  

25-30  “ 

Molasses  

25-30 

Maple  syrup  

3-  5 

Maple  syrup  is  made  by  concentrating  the  juice  of  the  sugar 
maple.  It  is  a product  which  is  greatly  in  demand,  but  com- 
pared to  other  syrups  it  is  of  minor  importance. 

Where  Sorghum  Can  Be  Grown 

So  far  as  climate  is  concerned,  sorghum  can  be  grown  in  any 
section  of  Wisconsin  where  there  is  an  average  growing  season 
of  120  days,  or  wherever  dent  corn  will  mature  satisfactorily. 
The  southwestern  half  of  the  state  is  most  suitable,  as  practically 
all  of  the  sorghum  acreage  is  grown  southwest  of  a line  extending 
from  Burnett  County  to  Racine  County.  That  section  of  Port- 
age and  Waushara  Counties  lying  northeast  of  this  line  and  all 
of  Waupaca  County  are  also  suitable  for  sorghum.  The  lake 
shore  region  north  of  Milwaukee,  the  red  clay  region  around 
Lake  Winnebago,  and  all  of  the  extreme  north  and  northeastern 
counties  are  not  suitable.  That  the  climate  of  the  southwest 
half  of  the  state  is  suitable  for  sorghum  growing  has  been  fully 
demonstrated  by  over  50  years  of  successful  sorghum  culture  in 
that  section  of  Wisconsin. 

While  sorghum  is  fundamentally  a warm  weather  plant  and 
does  not  grow  to  advantage  in  cool,  wet  weather,  yet  by  growing 
the  early  Wisconsin  varieties  which  mature  in  105  to  120  days. 


Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 


11 


sufficient  maturity  of  the  crop  will  be  obtained  in  a large  majority 
of  seasons.  There  are  occasional  seasons,  however,  when  sorghum 
will  be  seriously  injured  by  early  fall  frosts,  but  such  seasons 
have  occurred  but  rarely  in  the  past. 

No  special  type  of  soil  is  necessary  for  sorghum,  but  it 
matures  earlier  on  sandy  soils.  It  is  like  rye  in  that 
it  will  make  the  best  growth  on  good  fertile  land,  but  it  also 
makes  a satisfactory  growth  on  soils  too  poor  for  ordinary  crops. 
Sorghum  does  best  on  good  corn  soils,  but  any  reasonably  fertile 


FIG.  5.-COMPLETE  EQUIPMENT  SAVES  LABOR  AND  AVOIDS  WASTE 
In  a modern  sorghum  syrup  factory  hand  heading  and  stripping  are  unnecessary.  The 
crop  is  harvested  with  a corn-binder  and  delivered  to  the  mill  for  heading  and  strip- 
ping. The  heavy-powered  mills  press  out  a high  percentage  of  juice.  With  such  equip- 
ment practically  the  entire  crop  is  utilized. 

clay,  silt,  or  sandy  loam  is  suitable.  Sorghum  should  not  be 
grown  on  cold  heavy  clay  soils,  such  as  the  red  clays,  on  clay 
hills,  sand  plains,  or  any  undrained  soil.  Good  drainage  is  even 
more  important  with  sorhgum  than  with  corn. 

Soils  that  have  been  infested  with  weeds  should  not  be  used 
for  sorghum.  On  such  lands  weeds  will  outgrow  the  sorghum 
unless  kept  in  check  by  constant  hand  hoeing.  Sorghum  does 
not  grow  rapidly  early  in  the  spring,  and  consequently  cannot 
compete  with  weeds.  Clean  land  is,  therefore,  essential  for 
sorghuHL 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


Effect  on  Soil  Fertility 

Sorghum  removes  from  the  soil  practically  the  same  amount 
of  plant  food  elements  as  does  corn.  In  other  words,  a ton  of 
dry  sorghum  stalks  contains  practically  the  same  amount  of 
mineral  plant  food  elements  as  does  a ton  of  corn.  The  more 
dry  matter  produced  by  any  crop,  the  greater  the  amount  of 
fertility  removed.  Soil  conditions  being  equal,  sorghum  will 


FIG.  6.— impure  seed  PRODUCES  A WORTHLESS  MIXTURE 
Pure  se€d  is  essential  for  producing  good  syrup.  Seed  of  unknown  origin  should  not  be 
groAvn.  Plant  only  northern-groAvn  Early  Amber. 

generally  outyield  corn,  consequently  it  removes  more  fertility. 
This  excess  fertility,  however,  is  not  wasted — the  sorghum 
makes  good  use  of  it  by  putting  it  in  a form"  that  the  farmer  can 
use.  The  important  matter  is  not  how  much  fertility  a crop  re- 
moves, but  how  economically  it  uses  that  fertility,  and  whether 
or  not  the  money  returns  for  the  crop  are  in  proportion  to  the 
fertility  which  it  draws  from  the  soil. 

The  ability  which  sorghum  has  to  produce  a profitable  yield 
under  such  unfavorable  conditions  as  poor  soils  and  drouthy 
seasons  fully  offsets  the  fertility  removed. - 

Where  sorghum  is  grown,  tlie  fertility  of  the  soil  should  be 
maintained  by  the  usual  Wisconsin  farm  practice  of  rotating 
crops,  growing  clover  or  alfalfa,  and  applying  barnyard  manure. 


Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 


13 


On  acid  soils  lime  may  also  be  applied.  If  this  is  done,  the 
matter  of  soil  fertility  will  be  no  greater  problem  than  in  the 
case  of  corn  or  other  similar  crops. 


FIG.  7.— FOUR  COMMON  TYPES  OF  SORGHUM  USED  FOR  SYRUP 

In  the  upper  row,  roa<iin^j  from  left  to  rig^lit,  are  four  typical  seed  heads:  red  top  or 
sumac,  black  amber,  orange,  red  amber.  Of  these  the  black  amber  is  best  suited  to 
Wisconsin.  In  the  lower  row  are  heads  showing  the  re.sult  of  crossing  sorghum  with 
Sudan  grass.  Seed  from  fields  which  show  this  or  similar  mixture  sliould  not  be  used 
for  planting 


In  crop  rotations,  sorghum  should  occupy  the  same  place  as 
corn,  in  which  case  a common  rotation  would  be: 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


First  year,  small  grain  (seeded  to  clover). 

Second  year,  clover  (manured  in  fall). 

Third  year,  sorghum. 

Sorghum  may  also  be  grown  in  a four-year  rotation, 
following  cultivated  crops  such  as  corn,  potatoes,  or  tobacco. 

Plant  the  Best  Seed  Obtainable 

The  only  kind  of  sorghum  seed  worth  planting  is  an  early- 
maturing,  pure  strain.  Only  three  to  four  pounds  of  seed  are 
required  to  plant  an  acre,  so  the  matter  of  price  is  no  consid- 
eration. The  difference  between  success  and  failure  with 


FIG.  8.— SORGHUM  SEED  SHOULD  BE  CURED  AS  CAREFULLY  AS  CORN 


If  the  seed  head  are  strung  on  wire  or  twine  in  a warm,  well-ventilated 
room,  they  will  cure  properly,  and  high-germinating,  vigorous  seed  will  be 
obtained. 

sorghum  is  often  in  the  seed,  for  late-maturing,  badly  mixed 
sorghum  will  produce  syrup  of  poor  quality  and  very  little  of 
it.  A tall-growing,  juicy  strain  of  Early  Black  Amber,  such  as 
the  Dodgeville  Amber  or  the  Mazo  Amber,  is  the  kind  to  grow. 
Each  of  these  strains  has  been  carefully  selected  and  tested  for 
several  years  and  is  known  to  be  pure,  rich  in  juice,  and  early- 
maturing.  At  the  Experiment  Station  these  two  strains  have 
been  found  superior  to  over  25  varieties  and  strains  with  which 
they  have  been  compared.  They  have  been  distributed  and 
tested  by  growers  in  practically  every  sorghum-growing  section 
of  the  state  without  one  unfavorable  report.  There  is  now  an 
abundant  supply  of  both  Mazo  and  Dodgeville  Amber.  The 


Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 


15 


annual  sorghum  seed  list  prepared  at  the  Experiment  Station  at 
Madison  tells  where  it  may  be  obtained. 

Farmers  who  have  grown  a small  ‘'patch’’  of  cane  of 
especially  good  quality  often  save  their  own  seed  for  the  next 
year’s  planting.  Much  of  the  good  seed  in  the  state  has  been 
passed  from  farm  to  farm  in  this  way.  To  select  the  seed  go 
through  the  field  just  before  or  just  after  the  cane  is  stripped. 
Select  well-matured  heads  from  desirable  plants.  Put  them  in 
a sack  or  pile  until  they  are  taken  to  the  curing  room,  which 
should  be  within  a few  hours.  Cure  under  the  same  conditions 
of  temperature  and  ventilation  required  for  seed  corn. 

The  best  way  to  hang  the  heads  is  on  baling  wire  or  binder 
twine.  Take  each  head  separately,  and  holding  with  head 
pointing  downward,  open  out  a few  of  the  seed  branches  at  the 
base  of  the  head.  Slip  these  branches  over  the  wire  or  twine, 
and  pull  down  on  the  head  until  the  wire  is  close  up  to  the 
crotch  made  by  the  central  stem  and  the  seed  branches.  The 
heads  may  be  crowded  rather  closely  on  the  line.  Begin  string- 
ing at  one  end  of  the  room  and  at  the  top  string.  When  it  is 
filled,  stretch  other  strings  until  the  last  reaches  near  the  floor 
(fig.  8).  It  is  a good  plan  to  cut  the  stalk  end  of  the  head 
to  a 4-  or  5-inch  length. 

Seed  cured  on  the  'farm  is  threshed  out  by  hand,  as  a rule,  but 
when  there  is  a large  enough  quantity  of  seed  it  may  be  put 
through  a threshing  machine  provided  it  is  properly  adjusted. 

Southern  and  southwestern  grown  sorghum  seed  should  be 
strictly  avoided  for  planting  in  Wisconsin.  Seed  from  such 
sources  invariably  fails  to  mature  in  this  climate  and,  in  addi- 
tion, is  likely  to  be  mixed  with  every  sort  of  sorghum  from 
broom  corn  to  Sudan  grass.  Let  such  seed  alone  and  insist  on 
native-grown  Black  Amber  strains  that  have  proved  to  be  de- 
pendable. 

Sorghum  readily  mixes  by  field  crossing  with  any  other  mem- 
ber of  the  sorghum  family,  such  as  Sudan  grass,  kafir,  milo, 
feterita,  and  broom  corn.  Since  Sudan  grass  is  the  only  other 
sorghum  grown  in  Wisconsin  to  any  extent,  native-grown  seed 
which  was  originally  pure  has  little  chance  of  becoming  mixed. 
Sorghum  grown  near  a field  of  sundan  grass  or  broom  corn,  how- 
ever, should  never  be  saved  for  seed. 

Sorghum  will  not  cross  with  corn  or  other  common  Wisconsin 
crops. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


Plant  in  Clean,  Well-prepared  Soil 

A seed  bed  that  is  relatively  free  from  weeds  and  thoroughly 
prepared  is  essential  for  producing  a good  crop  of  sorghum. 
The  plants  grow  very  slowly  early  in  the  season,  and  unless  the 
soil  is  well  prepared  and  comparatively  free  from  weed  seeds 
the  crop  will  not  give  good  results.  Since  weeds  are  the  prin- 
cipal source  of  trouble  in  cultivating  sorghum,  the  field  selected 


PIG.  9.— stripping  in  THE  FIELD  IS  STILL  THE  COMMON  PRACTICE 


When  stripped  by  the  grower  the  sorghum  leaves  are  knocked  off  with  a lath  while 
the  stalks  are  still  standing.  This  work  is  avoided  when  the  stalks  are  taken  to  the 
better  equipped  mills. 

for  sorghum  should  be  one  that  has  been  kept  free  from  weeds, 
one  on  which  corn,  sugar  beets,  potatoes,  or  other  cultivated 
crops  were  grown  during  the  previous  year. , Clover  sod  is 
fairly  free  from  weeds,  as  a rule,  and  is  therefore  well  suited 
to  sorghum. 

The  seed  bed  should  be  firm,  well-pulverized  on  the  surface, 
and  not  water-logged.  It  should  be  surface  tilled  with  a disk 
or  spring  tooth  harrow,  followed  with  a smoothing  harrow  or 
corrugated  roller  just  previous  to  planting. 

Plant  About  the  Same  Time  As  Corn 

Sorghum  should  be  planted  in  Wisconsin  at  about  the  same 
time  or  just  after  corn  is  planted.  Very  early  planting  is  un- 


Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 


17 


safe,  for  the  plants  will  not  grow  during  cold,  wet  weather. 
From  105  to  120  days  are  required  to  mature  the  Amber  var- 
ieties. 

To  be  out  of  danger  of  fall  frosts,  the  crop  should  mature 
from  September  1 to  September  15.  This  means  that  in  most 
seasons  planting  must  be  done  between  May  15  and  June  1. 


FIG.  10.— HEADING  IS  GENERALLY  DONE 'bY  HAND 

Heading  is  usually  done  while  the  stalks  are  standing  and  after  they  are*  stripped. 

Modern  mills  save  the  grower  this  task. 

Plant  in  Hills  or  Check  Rows 

In  order  to  keep  weeds  under  control,  sorghum  in  Wisconsin 
should  be  jilanted  either  in  hills  or  in  check  rows.  It  should 
not  be  drilled  except  on  very  clean  sandy  soils.  When  the  seed 
is  planted  in  hills,  the  rows  vary  in  width  from  36  to  44  inches 
and  the  hills  from  16  to  24  inches  apart  in  the  row.  When  the 
field  is  checked,  the  rows  are  usually  from  36  to  40  inches  apart 
each  way.  The  narrower  the  rows,  so  long  as  satisfactory  cul- 
tivation can  be  accomplished,  the  greater  tlie  yield.  Since  Am- 
ber sorghum  does  not  produce  long,  heavy  leaves,  the  rows  do 
not  need  to  be  very  far  apart. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  there  arc  very  many  plants  to  the  hill, 
the  stalks  will  be  too  slender.  Slender  plants  do  not  contain 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


much  juice.  Comparatively  thick,  sturdy  stalks  are  desired. 
Three  to  four  plants  to  a hill,  when  the  field  is  planted  in  hills, 
and  four  to  five  plants  when  the  field  is  check-rowed,  is  about 
the  right  stand.  A good,  regular  stand  is  important,  but  a 
thick  stand  will  greatly  reduce  the  yield  of  syrup. 

A common  two-row  corn  planter,  equipped  with  special 
sorghum  plates  is  the  best  implement  for  planting  sorghum. 
In  small  fields  or  “patches”  sorghum  seed  is  usually  planted 
by  hand  and  covered  with  a hoe. 


FIG.  11.— HIGH-POWERED  CRUSHERS  HANDLE  UNSTRIPPED  SORGHUM 

Some  mills  have  equipment  which  makes  stripping  unnecessary,  as  the  crushers  can 
handle  the  sorghum  with  the  leaves  on  and  make  a first-class  syrup. 


Use- Plenty  of  Seed  and  Plant  Shallow 

Sorghum  is  not  very  vigorous  when  germinating  and  when 
the  plants  are  young.  Cold  damp  soils,  crusted  surfaces,  and 
competition  of  weeds  must  all  be  overcome ; consequently  plenty 
of  seed  should  be  planted  to  insure  a good  stand.  It  is  better 
to  thin  to  the  desired  stand  after  the  plants  are  several  inches 
high  than  to  take  the  chance  of  a poor  stand  by  thin  planting. 
Three  to  four  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  will  provide  plenty  of 
plants. 


Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 


19 


Deep  planting  should  be  strictly  avoided.  Sorghum  seeds 
are  small  and  the  young  plants  are  not  able  to  push  their  way 
through  very  much  soil.  Plant  just  deep  enough,  therefore,  to 
cover  the  seed.  One-half  inch  is  sufficient  in  any  soil  in  Wis- 
consin 

Thorough  Cultivation  Important 

Unless  weeds  are  kept  out  of  sorghum,  it  is  of  little  value  for 
syrup.  This  is  especially  true  when  the  crop  is  harvested  with 


FIG.  12.— heading  is  SOMETIMES  DONE  AT  THE  MILL 

At  the  better-equipped  mills  stalks  are  received  with  the  heads  on  and  heading  is 
done  after  delivery.  A simple  device  like  that  in  the  illustration  or  a mechanical 
header  is  used. 

a corn  binder.  The  earlier  the  cultivating  is  begun,  the  better. 
The  harrow  may  be  used  just  after  the  seed  is  planted  and  before 
the  plants  are  up.  After  the  sorghum  is  up  an  inch  or  more 
the  harrowing  can  be  repeated.  For  subsequent  cultivation,  an 
ordinary  straddle-row  cultivator  may  be  used.  Go  over  the  field 
with  such  a cultivator  as  often  as  necessary  to  keep  the  soil  in 
proper  tilth  and  the  weeds  under  control.  On  weedy  soils, 
hoeing  is  unquestionably  necessary.  One  hoeing  is  usually  suf- 
ficient, although  a second,  or  even  a third,  hoeing  is  sometimes 
required. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


Harvest  When  Past  the  Milk  Stage 

P^or  the  best  quality  and  greatest  quantity  of  syrup,  sorghum 
should  be  harvested  after  the  seed  has  reached  the  late  milk 
stage  and  before  the  seeds  are  hard.  In  Amber  sorghum  a 
majority  of  the  heads  should  be  reddish  brown  to  black.  In 
other  words,  whenever  weather  conditions  will  permit,  harvest- 
ing should  be  delayed  until  the  plants  are  nearly  mature,  but 
there  are  occasional  seasons  in  Wisconsin  when  it  is  necessary  to 
harvest  rather  early.  If  a frost  occurs  while  the  crop  is  still 
standing  harvesting  should  be  done  at  once.  If  the  crop  has 
reached  the  blossom  stage,  it  can  be  profitably  used  for  syrup, 
even  though  it  is  severely  frosted. 

Harvest  by  Hand  or  With  Corn-binder 

When  harvested  by  hand  the  leaves  are  usually  stripped  while 
the  stalks  are  still  standing,  although  it  is  sometimes  done 
after  they  are  harvested.  Stripping  is  done  by  knocking  off 
the  leaves  with  a stick,  such  as  a sharpened  lath,  allowing  them 
to  fall  where  they  will.  The  heads  are  then  removed  either 
from  the  standing  stalks  or  after  they  are  cut.  The  usual 
method  is  to  head  before  cutting  down.  Any  heavy  knife,  such 
as  a corn  knife,  serves  the  purpose.  From  10  to  12  inches  of 
the  top  of  the  stalk  is  cut  off  with  the  head. 

The  heads  are  either  thrown  in  piles  or  allowed  to  fall  to 
the  ground.  The  stripped  and  headed  stalks  are  then  cut  by 
hand  with  a corn  knife  and  tied  in  bundles  about  the  size  of 
ordinary  corn  bundles.  These  are  loaded  onto  wagons  and 
hauled  to  the  local  syrup  mill. 

Where  the  sorghum  mill  is  equipped  with  machinery  for 
heading  and  stripping  the  sorghum  by  mechanical  means,  the 
crop  is  harvested  with  an  ordinary  corn  harvester.  The  bundles 
are  placed  in  shocks  just  as  in  the  case  of  corn  and  after  the 
stalks  have  wilted  by  standing  in  the  shock  for  two  or  three 
days,  they  are  ready  to  haul  to  the  mill.  From  the  grower’s' 
standpoint,  this  method  of  harvesting  is  certainly  more  desirable. 

Hauling  the  sorghum  stalks  is  a big  labor  item  regardless 
of  whether  the  stalks  are  stripped  and  headed  or  whether  the 
entire  crop  is  hauled  to  the  mill.  On  average  Wisconsin  roads 
two  tons  of  sorghum  make  a load.  The  number  of  loads  to  the 


Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 


21 


acre  will  vary  from  four  to  six  or  more,  depending  upon  the 
yield.  Five  to  seven  miles  is  probably  the  greatest  distance  to 
which  sorghum  can  be  hauled  with  profit. 

Shock  or  Pile  at  the  Mill 


To  prevent  souring,  or  molding,  sorghum  stalks  when  delivered 
to  the  mill  should  be  placed  in  shocks.  The  shocks  should  be 
about  10  feet  in  diameter  and  contain  about  a ton  of  stalks.  They 


FIG.  13.— BINDING  FOLLOWS  HEADING  AND  STRIPPING  IN  THE  FIELD 

Where  the  crop  is  harvested  by  hand  the  stripped  and  headed  stalks  are  cut  down, 
placed  in  bundles,  bound,  and  loaded  for  hauling  to  the  syrup  mill. 


should  be  set  up  in  the  same  manner  as  corn  shocks.  Shocking 
is  especially  important  if  the  stalks  are  to  be  held  several  days 
before  grinding,  When  sorghum  is  shocked  some  evaporation 
will  take  place,  depending  upon  how  long  the  shocks  stand,  but 
there  is  practically  no  danger  that  they  will  mold  or  sour. 

Where  the  sorghum  stalks  are  to  be  held  but  a short  time, 
however,  they  may  be  piled,  in  which  case  the  layers  or  tiers  of 
bundles  should  be  alternated  so  that  each  tier  lies  crosswise  on 
the  layer  of  bundles  beneath.  If  the  sorghum  stalks  are  to  be 
worked  up  in  48  hours  or  less,  they  may  be  placed  in  almost 
any  kind  of  pile. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


The  essential  matter  in  shocking  or  piling  at  the  mill  is  to 
prevent  too  much  compactness  and  to  allow  some  circulation 
of  air,  otherwise  the  stalks  will  heat  and  spoil.  Shocking  is 
especially  important  if  the  sorghum  is  not  stripped  and  headed. 

Because  of  the  usual  cool  weather  during  sorghum  harvest 
in  Wisconsin,  losses  due  to  souring  and  molding  will  very  rarely 
occur  if  attention  is  given  to  shocking  and  piling  properly. 

Yields  of  Sorghum 

On  good  soil  sorghum  will  yield  in  Wisconsin  an  average  of 
10  tons  of  wilted  stalks  to  the  acre.  The  average  for  all  soils  is 
from  about  6 tons  to  more  than  15  tons.  The  state  average  for 
yield  of  corn  silage  is  from  8 to  9 tons  an  acre,  and  sorghum  can 
be  expected  to  outyield  corn.  The  relative  proportion  of  heads 
to  wilted  stalks  is  about  10  per  cent.  The  leaves  also  constitute 
about  10  per  cent.  This  leaves  80  per  cent  as  stripped  stalks. 


Table  IV. — Products  From  ax  Acre  of  Sorghum 


Total  yield  of  wilted  stalks 

10  tons 
1 “ 

1 “ 

8 “ 

20.000  pounds 
2,000 

2,000 

16.000 

Proportion  of  leaves  (10  per  cent) 

Proportion  of  seed  heads  (10  per  cent) 

Proportion  of  stripped  stalks  (20  per  cent) 

Table  V. — Proportion  of  Juice  and  Syrup  to  Stripped  Stalks 

Total  yield  of  stripped  stalks 

8 tons 

4 «« 

16,000  pounds 
8,000 
1,200 

109  gallons 
8,000  pounds 

Proportion  of  raw  juice  (50  per  cent) 

Proportion  of  symp  H.5  per  cent  of  juice')  

Gallons  of  syrup  (11  pounds  to  gallon) 

Proportion  of  bagasse  (50  per  cent) 

4 tons 

Considering  an  average  yield  as  10  tons  of  wilted  stalks  an  acre, 
there  will  be  one  ton  of  heads,  one  ton  of  leaves,  and  eight 
tons  of  stripped  stalks.  From  10  to  15  bushels  of  dry,  clean 
seed  can  be  obtained  from  an  acre.  (See  Table  IV.) 

Fifty  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  stripped  cane  can  be  con- 
verted into  juice  if  a first-class  mill  is  used.  From  the  eight 
tons  of  stripped  stalks  produced  on  an  acre,  a yield  of  four  tons 
or  8,000  pounds  of  raw  sorghum  juice  is  obtained.  The  syrup 
resulting  from  boiling  down  the  juice  will  be  about  15  per 
cent  by  weight  of  the  original  juice,  or  1,200  pounds  of  syrup 
to  an  acre,  which  is  approximately  110  gallons. 

The  crushed  stalks  (bagasse)  from  which  the  juice  has  been 
extracted  constitute  about  40  per  cent  of  the  original  weight  of 
wilted  stalks,  or  four  tons  of  bagasse  from  an  acre.  (See  Table  V.) 


Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 


23 


It  must  be  understood  that  the  estimates  of  the  products  from 
an  acre  of  sorghum  are  general  approximations  based  on  aver- 
age yields  in  Wisconsin  and  apply  to  production  obtained  from 
properly  equipped  mills.  The  majority  of  small  community 
mills  will  obtain  a considerably  smaller  percentage  of  juice  from 
the  stripped  stalks  and  will  also  waste  more  in  skimming. 

The  Leaves  Should  Not  Be  Wasted 

The  leaves  from  sorghum  are  good  feed  for  livestock  but  it 
is  difficult  to  take  care  of  them  if  they  are  stripped  off  in  the 


FIG.  14.— SHOCK  OR  PILE  AT  THE  MILL 

To  prevent  souring  or  molding,  sorghum  stalks  should  be  placed  in  shocks  when 
they  are  delivered  to  the  mill.  Piling  is  satisfactory  if  the  stalks  are  to  be  crushed 
within  one  or  two  days. 


field  and  it  may  not  pay  to  save  them.  When  the  unstripped 
stalks  are  delivered  to  the  mill,  the  leaves  can  be  readily  utilized 
for  silage  or  as  stacked  feed.  At  some  mills  the  stalks  are 
crushed  without  removing  the  leaves,  in  which  case  the  remain- 
ing pulp  consisting  of  leaves  and  crushed  stalks  should  be  put 
through  a silage  cutter  and  run  directly  into  a silo.  Such  ma- 
terial makes  a very  satisfactory  grade  of  silage. 

Preparing  Seed  for  the  Market 

Sorghum  seed  when  ground  is  a satisfactory  substitute  for 
corn  though  less  valuable  bushel  for  bushel  for  feeding  or  selling 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


for  feed.  An  acre  of  average  sorghum  will  produce  from  10  to  15 
bushels  of  threshed  grain,  56  pounds  to  the  bushel. 

Unless  sorghum  seed  is  thoroughly  dried  it  will  certainly 
heat  and  mold  when  stored.  As  the  heads  are  difficult  to  dry 
and  thresh  under  ordinary  farm  conditions,  little  effort  is  ordin- 
arily made  to  handle  them  properly,  except  for  the  small  amount 
that  is  kept  for  planting  (see  page  15).  When  the  heading  is 
done  at  the  mill  the  unthreshed  heads  can  be  run  through  a 
drier,  which  makes  them  much  easier  to  thresh.  This  threshed 
grain  can  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  re-dried  if  necessary,  and 
properly  stored. 


riG.  15.— THE  CRUSHED  STALKS  SHOULD  NOT  BE  WASTED 

At  practically  every  mill  in  Wisconsin  the  refuse,  called  bagasse,  is  left  to  rot  where 
it  has  been  piled.  This  valuable  material,  now  wasted,  can  be  readily  utilized  for 
silage,  fuel,  or  fertilizer. 


Use  Bagasse  for  Silage,  Fuel,  Fertilizer 

Only  one  or  two  mills  in  Wisconsin  make  any  use  of  the 
crushed  sorghum  stalks.  At  practically  every  mill  this  bagasse 
is  left  to  rot  where  it  has  been  piled.  The  principal  reason  for 
this  is  that  the  form  in  which  it  is  produced  makes  it  practically 
impossible  to  handle  with  a fork — it  is  too  long,  heavy,  and 
matted.  As  produced  by  the  average  community  mill,  the 
bagasse  contains  a good  deal  of  juice.  This,  together  with  the 
fiber,  makes  it  valuable  as  a fertilizer  or  as  silage  and  does  not 


Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 


25 


lower  its  value  as  fuel.  If  the  crushed  stalks  were  run  through 
a silage  cutter  just  as  they  come  from  the  sorghum  mill,  they 
would  then  be  in  such  condition  that  they  could  be  handled  and 
used  for  whatever  purpose  they  were  found  to  be  most  suited. 
There  are  mills  which  are  using  silage  cutters  for  this  purpose 
and  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  economy  of  this  method. 


FIG.  16.— THE  MODERN  SYRUP  MILL  WASTES  NOTHING 

Crushed  stalks  and  leaves  are  used  for  silage  at  many  mills.  Practical  experience 
proves  their  value  for  this  purpose. 

Relation  of  Mills  to  Grower 

The  making  of  sorghum  syrup  is  a business  separate  from 
growing  and  handling  the  crop,  and  since  fairly  complete  in- 
formation on  manufacturing  is  now  available  in  published  form, 
the  subject  will  be  treated  in  this  bulletin  only  as  it  relates  to 
the  grower  and  the  crop. 

At  the  syrup  mill  the  sorghum  stalks  are  crushed  and  the  juice 
reduced  to  syrup  at  an  agreed  price  a gallon  or  for  a certain 
share.  Some  large  factories  find  it  more  satisfactory  to  weigh 
the  stalks  when  delivered  and  to  pay  for  them  in  cash  at  an 
agreed  price  a ton. 

When  the  syrup  is  made  by  the  gallon  or  on  shares,  the 
crops  of  the  various  customers  must  b(i  handled  in  such  a way 
that  each  will  receive  his  just  share  of  syruj).  The  most  ecpiit- 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


able,  and  the  most  generally  advisable,  method  of  determin- 
ing the  syrup  due  each  customer  is  to  keep  each  crop  separate, 
to  crush  it  separately,  and  to  boil  down  the  juice  separately — in 
other  words,  to  keep  the  product  of  each  customer  separate  from 
the  time  it  is  delivered  to  the  mill  until  the  finished  syrup  is 
made.  In  boiling  and  evaporating,  some  mixing  of  lots  will  in- 
variably occur,  but  when  reasonable  care  is  used,  the  overlapping 
will  be  of  no  consequence.  Handling  each  lot  separately  is 
recommended  for  all  comparatively  small  syrup  mills. 

To  avoid  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  juice  of  the  various  lots 
separated  while  being  boiled  and  evaporated,  some  mills  weigh 
or  measure  the  fresh  juice,  and  by  testing  it  determine  how  much 
syrup  it  will  produce.  By  this  method,  each  customer ’s  sorghum 
is  crushed  as  a separate  lot  and  the  juice  collected  in  a large 
weighing  or  measuring  vat.  A test  is  then  made  with  a hydro- 
meter to  determine  the  amount  of  solids,  and  from  this  test  the 
quantity  of  syrup  that  the  juice  will  produce  is  calculated.  This 
method,  when  properly  carried  out,  is  just  and  equitable  to  the 
grower  and  is  advisable  for  those  mills  which  operate  on  a com- 
paratively large  scale.  Proper  assistance  and  equipment  are 
necessary  for  using  this  method,  consequently  it  is  not  advisable 
for  small  mills. 

How  TO  Reckon  Amount  of  Syrup  from  Juice 

The  amount  of  syrup  that  can  be  obtained  from  a given 
quantity  of  fresh  juice  can  be  determined  by  using  the  in- 
strument called  a hydrometer.  The  amount  of  solids  in  the 
original  juice  determines  the  amount  of  syrup  that  can  be  made, 
as  these  solids  are  not  removed  by  evaporation,  but  as  evapora- 
tion takes  place  the  percentage  of  solids  to  water  proportionately 
increases.  The  finished  syrup,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  all 
solids  but  contains  a much  higher  percentage  of  solids  than  did 
the  original  juice.  The  amount  of  syrup  that  a given  quantity 
of  fresh  juice  will  produce,  therefore,  is  determined  by  the  rela- 
tion between  the  per  cent  of  solids  in  the  original  juice  and  the 
per  cent  of  solids  in  the  finished  .syrup. 

To  determine  the  amount  of  syrup  obtainable  from  juice, 
therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  percentage  of  solids  in  the 
finished  syrup,  as  well  as  the  percentage  of  solids  in  the  fresh 


Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 


27 


By  use  of  the  hydrometer  the 


juice.  Fresh  sorghum  juice  usually  contains  from  9 to  16  per 
cent  of  total  solids.  Sorghum  syrup  usually  contains  from  70 
to  80  per  cent  of  total  solids, 
amount  of  solids  in  the  juice 
is  determined  and  also  the 
amount  of  solids  in  the  fin- 
ished syrup. 


How  TO  Use  the 
Hydrometer 

Several  kinds  of  hydrom- 
eters may  be  used  in  sorghum 
syrup  manufacture.  For  de- 
termining the  percentage  of 
solids  in  juice,  the  Brix  hy- 
drometer is  marked  in  such  a 
way  that  it  shows  directly 
the  percentage  of  solids  in 
juice  (see  fig.  17). 

The  Baume  hydrometer 
(see  fig.  17)  is  in  common  use 
but  the  reading  on  this  hy- 
drometer is  somewhat  differ- 
ent. The  reading  is  not  the 
percentage  of  solids  but  an 
arbitrary  number  from  which 
the  percentage  of  solids  is 
found  by  referring  to  a table. 
(See  Tables  VI  and  VII.)  In 
determining  the  percentage 
of  solids  in  the  finished  syrup, 
the  Baume  hydrometer  is 
preferred,  as  it  sinks  in 
syrups  better  than  other  in- 
struments of  this  kind,  mak- 
ing it  possible  to  find  the  den- 
sity no  matter  how  thick  the 
syrup. 


52 


5i 


62 


6i 


72 


71 


FIG.  17.— TWO  TYPES  OP  HYDROMETERS 
ARE  CONVENIENT 

To  determine  the  amount  of  syrup  from  the 
juice  crushed  from  any  customer’s  stalks  a 
hydrometer  Is  used.  The  Baum6  (1)  Is  com- 
monly used,  though  It  Is  not  as  satisfactory 
for  determining  the  percentage  of  solids  In  the 
juice  as  the  Brlx  (3).  The  cylinder  (2)  Is  used 
for  making  hydrometer  readings. 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


To  make  the  test,  a quantity  of  fresh  sorghum  juice  is  placed 
in  a container  called  a cylinder.  After  the  juice  has  remained 
in  the  cylinder  for  several  minutes  to  allow  air  to  escape,  the 
hydrometer  is  lowered  into  the  cylinder.  As  the  hydrometer 
sinks  the' bubbles  should  be  blown  from  the  surface  of  the  cylin- 
der. The  hydrometer  will  float  and  when  it  comes  to  rest  the 
reading  should  be  taken.  If  the  Brix  hydrometer  is  used  the 
reading  will  give  directly  the  percentage  of  solids.  If  the  Baume 
hydrometer  is  used  it  will  be  necessary  to  interpret  the  reading 
in  terms  of  total  solids.  (See  Table  VI.) 


Table  VI. — For  Determining  the  Percentage  of  Solids  in  Sorghum 
Juice,  Using  the  Baume  Hydrometer 


Baume  reading 

Per  cent  solids 

Baume  reading 

Per  cent  solids 

4.8 

8.5 
9.0 

9.5 
10.0 

10.5 
11.0 

11.5 
12.0 

12.5 

13.0 

13.5 

14.0 

8.2 

14.5 

15.0 

15.5 

16.0 

16.5 

17.0 

17.5 

18.0 

18.5 

19.0 

19.5 

20.0 

5.1 

8.5 

5 4 

8.8 

5.7 

9.0 

n Q . . . 

9.3 

6.2  

9.6 

6 

9.9 

R 8 

10.1 

7 1 

10.4 ! 

7 4 

10.7 

7 

11.0 

7 

11.3 

To  determine  the  percentage  of  solids  in  the  finished  syrup 
the  test  should  be  made  when  the  syrup  is  cool.  The  test  is 
made  the  same  as  that  for  fresh  juice,  but  a Baume  hydrometer 
is  always  used. 

The  most  satisfactory  syrup  contains  75  per  cent  of  solids 
and  25  per  cent  of  water.  Some  variation  will  occur,  of  course, 
but  the  more  nearly  the  syrup  averages  75  per  cent  solids  the 
better  the  quality.  In  determining  the  amount  of  syrup’  that 
can  be  obtained  from  a given  quantity  of  juice,  it  can  be  assumed 
that  the  percentage  of  solids  in  the  finished  syrup  will  be  7o 
per  cent,  although  it  is  advisable  to  keep  a check  on  the  finished 
syrup  by  making  frequent  hydrometer  tests  to  determine  its 
density. 

If  the  Baume  hydrometer  is  used  in  testing  the  fresh  juice, 
the  percentage  of  solids  is  determined  bj^  referring  to  Table  VI. 


Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin 


29 


Suppose  that  the  Bauiue  reading  is  6.7 ; it  will  be  found  by 
referring  to  the  table  that  the  per  cent  solids  is  12.  In  the 
case  of  syrup,  suppose  the  Baume  reading  is  39.8 ; by  referring 
to  Table  VII  the  per  cent  solids  is  found  to  be  75. 


Table  VII. — 'For  Determining  Percentage  of  Solids  in  Sorghum 
Syrup,  Using  the  Baume  Hydrometer 


jjaume  reading 

1 

Per  cent  solids 

Baume  reading 

Per  cent  solids 

37.4 

68.5 

69.0 

69.5 

70.0 

70.5 
1 71.C 

71.5 

72.0 

72.5 

73.0 

73.5 
• 74.0 

74.5 

75.0 

40.9 

75.5 

76.0 

76.5 

77.0 

77.5 

78.0 

78.5 

79.0 

79.5 

80.0 

80.5 
81.0 

81.5 
82.0 

37.6 

41.1 

37.9 

41.4 

38.1  

41.6 

38. 4 

41.9 

38.6 

42.1 

38.9 

42.4 

39.1 

42.6 

39.4 

42.9 

39  6 . 

43.1 

39.9 

43.3 

40.1 

43.6 

40.4  

43.8 

40.6  

44.1 

If  the  Brix  hydrometer  is  used  for  testing  the  same  juice  it 
gives  a reading  of  12,  indicating  directly  the  per  cent  solids  in 
the  juice. 

In  calculating  the  amount  of  syrup  obtainable  from  juice, 
determine  the  per  cent  solids  in  the  fresh  juice ; multiply  this 
by  100 ; divide  by  the  per  cent  solids  in  the  finished  syrup.  For 
example,  suppose  the  fresh  juice  gives  a test  of  12  per  cent,  and 
that  this  is  to  be  concentrated  to  syrup  containing  75  per  cent 
of  solids.  The  amount  of  syrup  which  can  be  made  will  be 

12  X 100  -:-75, 

or  16  per  cent  of  the  original  juice..  One  hundred  gallons 
of  this  juice  will  i)roduce  16  per  cent  x 100,  or  16  gallons  of 
syrup. 


Take  Proper  Care  op  Syrup 

(hnitainers  for  sorghum  syrup,  whether  barrels,  kegs,  jugs, 
milkeans  or  pails,  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  with  boiling- 
water  or  steam  before  they  are  used.  Souring  and  molding, 
which  sometimes  occur,  are  nearly  always  the  result  of  using 
containers  which  were  not  thoroughly  clean. 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  311 


If  the  syrup  is  to  be  sold  at  retail,  10-pound  pails  are  the 
most  satisfactory  containers.  For  home  use  milkcans  are 

especially  suitable. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  use  sealed  cans  or  jars  for  sorghum 
syrup.  Any  substantial  container  that  is  thoroughly  cleansed 
will  be  satisfactory.  A cool,  well-ventilated  room  is  the  proper 
place  to  store  the  syrup. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


E President  of  the  University 
L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 


A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
kl.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chemistry 


3.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 
A.'Aust,  Horticulture 

A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 

L, .  Bewick,  Agr.  Extension 
Bohstedt,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  Boutwell,  Agr.  Chemistry 

M.  Briggs,  Agronomy 

S.  Bullock,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 
J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 

3r.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 
RNiCE  Dodge,  Home  Economics 
W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 
H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy  Husbandry 

B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

Gr.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  Geib,  Soils 

M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterinary  Science 

G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry 

N.  Harmer,  Soils 

B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Bacteriology 
L.  Hatch,  Agr.  Education 

H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Economics 
,LEN  Hillstrom,  Home  Economics 

W.  Hopkins,  Editor ; in  charge  of  Agr. 
Journalism 

S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Animal  Hus- 
bandry 

A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Education 
G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
Johnson,  Horticulture 
R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Engineering 
R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pathology 
ELLiE  Kedzie  Jones,  Home  Economics 
W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 
Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
IAN  Krueger,  Home  Economics 

D.  Leith,  Agronomy 
W.  Lindstrom,  Genetics 

L.  Luther,  Field  Supervisor  of  Extension 
Courses  and  Schools 
Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 
AZEL  Manning,  Home  Economics 
8BY  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home  Eco- 
nomics 

. L.  McMurry,  Economic  Entomology 
G.  Milward,  Horticulture 
G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticulture 
. A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 
B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 
. B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 
. L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

^ H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
. F.  Potter,  Horticulture 
. Richards,  Soils 
. H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 


K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Extension  Service 
F.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Expt.  Station 


J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 

Celestine  Schmit,  Home  Economics 

M.  H.  Scott,  Animal  Husbandry 

H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemisry 

H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 

A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 

W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 

J.  SWENEHART,  Agp.  Engineering  (Bayfield) 

W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

H.  W.  Ullsperger,  Soils  (Sturgeon  Bay) 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
J.  C.  Walker,  Plant  Pathology 
A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic  En 
tomology  , ^ 

-J.  F.  WojTA,  State  Leader  of  Agricultural  Rep- 
resentatives 

A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 
W.H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 

J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Bacteriology,  Agr.  Chem 
istry 

Freda  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
Gladys  Baker,  Agr.  Journalism 
Ruth  Bittbrman,  Plant  Pathology 
J.  W.  Brann,  Horticulture,  Plant  Pathology 
O.  C.  Bryan,  Soils,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
A.  J.  Cramer,  Animal  Husbandry 

M.  Davis,  Home  Economics 

G.  R.  B.  Elliott,  Agr.  Engineering 

N.  R.  Ellis,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Englund,  Agr.  Economics 

J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

A.  C.  Foster,  Plant  Pathology 

W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

E.  G.  Gross,  Agr.  Chemistry 

J I.  Hambleton,  Economic  Entomology 

R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 

J.  B.  Hayes,  Poultry  Husbandry 
C.  S.  Hean,  Agr.  Library 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

H.  W.  Hollard,  Dairy  Husbandry 

C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 

O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
T...  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 

S.  Lepkovsky,  Agr.  Chemistry 

J.  L.  Lush,  Genetics 

K.  W.  Mainland,  Dairy  Husbandry 

E.  G.  Malloy,  Soils 

S W.  Mendum,  Agr.  Economics 
Maude  Miller,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  W.  Parker,  Soils 

D.  H.  Reid,  Poultry  Husbandry 

F.  X.  Ritger,  Executive  Secretary 
Mariana  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Otto  Stader,  Veterinary  Science 
Barnett  Sure,  Chemistry 
W.  B.  Tisdale,  Plant  Pathology 
C.  E.  Walsh,  Agr.  Engineering 


JUNE,  1920 


1 CLci 

BULLETIN  31^ 


Testing 

Soils 


Acidity 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 

MADISON  . ■’*  ,*4 


DIGEST 


All  soils  in  Wisconsin  should  be  tested  for  acidity,  since  soil  acid- 
ity is  at  present  the  most  important  soil  problem  in  the  state.  About 
three-fourths  of  the  soils  in  the  state  are  acid.  The  first  step  in 
attacking  this  problem  is  the  testing  of  the  soil  for  acidity. 


Page  3. 

A new  soil  acidity  test  was  devised  several  years  ago  which  in- 
dicates positively  not  only  the  presence  of  acidity,  but  also  the  de- 
gree of  acidity.  The  test  is  simple,  and  can  be  made  in  the  labora- 
tory or  field  by  anyone  who  is  able  to  follow  simple  directions. 

' Pages  4 to  12. 

Soil  acidity  is  injurious  because  it  keeps  many  plants  from  getting 
all  the  lime  they  need.  It  is  also  detrimental  to  the  favorable  chem- 
ical, physical,  and  bacteriological  processes  of  soils. 

Pages  12  to  17. 

The  amount  of  lime  needed  depends  upon  four  factors:  the  degree 
of  acidity,  the  kind  of  soil,  the  lime  requirements  of  the  crops  to  be 
grown,  and  the  kind  of  lime  to  be  used.  A standard  soil  acidity 
and  lime  chart  has  been  devised  which  indicates  the  amount  needed, 
based  on  these  four  factors. 

Pages  17  to  23. 

An  acid  soil  is  “chronically  sick,”  but  lime  begins  a cure  the  first 
year,  if  it  is  well  mixed  with  the  soil.  The  greatest  benefit,  how- 
ever, usually  does  not  appear  until  the  second  or  third  year. 


Page  24. 

The  farmer  should  have  the  county  agent,  experiment  station,  or 
some  experienced  person  test  the  field  that  is  to  be  planted  the 
coming  year  to  alfalfa,  clover  soybeans,  sugar  beets,  canning  peas, 
or  other  medium  to  high  lime-requirement  crop.  If  the  soil  is 
found  acid,  lime  should  be  used  as  directed. 


Page  24. 


Testing  Soils  for  Acidity 

EMIL  TRUOG 

All  soils  in  Wisconsin  should  be  tested  for  acidity,  and  where 
they  are  found  to  be  acid  the  degree  of  acidity  should  be  care- 
fully determined.  An  acid  condition  indicates  either  an  already 
low,  or  else  a declining,  supply  of  available  lime.  Lime  is  not 
only  used  by  all  growing  plants,  but  it  also  acts  as  a great  regu- 
lator of  soil  fertility.  It  may  not  always  be  advisable  to  lime 
all  acid  soils  under  all  conditions  (see  page  17),  but  it  is  very 
important  to  know  whether  a soil  is  acid,  and  how  acid  it  is  in 
order  that  if  lime  is  not  used,  crops  may  be  grown  which  are 
best  adapted  to  the  conditions.  If  a soil  is  strongly  acid,  lime 
should  always  be  added  under  general  farming  conditions. 
Liming  is  usually  the  first  step  in  the  improvement  of  drained 
acid  soils.  After  liming,  fertilizers  should  be  used  when  needed. 

Soil  acidity  is  at  present  the  most  important  soil  problem 
faced  by  the  farmers  of  Wisconsin  and  many  other  states. 
About  three-fourths  of  the  area  of  Wisconsin  is  acid.  But, 
fortunately,  Wisconsin  has  inexhaustible  deposits  of  limestone 
which  are  the  sources  of  different  forms  of  lime.  These  de- 
posits are  waiting  the  call  of  the  farmer  who  owns  acid  soils 
and  whose  duty  it  is  to  apply  lime  in  order  that  he  may  improve 
his  soil,  grow  larger  crops,  and  add  to  the  wealth  of  himself 
and  the  state.  I\Iany  farmers  now  realize  the  value  of  lime  for 
acid  soils  and  are  using  it  in  large  quantities. 

The  first  step  in  attacking  the  problem  is  the  testing  of  the 
soil  for  acidity.  Five  years  ago  a simple  test  for  soil  acidity 
(the  Truog  test)  which  indicates  not  only  the  presence  of  acidity, 
but  also  the  degree  of  acidity,  was  devised.  This  test  can  be 
easily  made  in  the  field  or  any  other  convenient  place  by  anyone 
who  will  follow  simple  directions.  It  is  especially  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  county  agents  and  other  field  men,  high  schools, 
rural  schools,  and  anyone  interested  in  making  practical  tests 
for  soil  acidity. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  312 


Taking  the  Soil  Sample 

In  taking  the  sample  from  a field,  select  a representative 
patch  of  a few  square  rods  and  take  a little  surface  soil  from 
five  or  six  places  in  this  small  area,  making  altogether  a sample 
of  about  one-half  cupful.  Samples  of  soil  are  conveniently  car- 
ried in  clean  paper  or  cloth  sacks.  They  may  be  easily  marked 
to  indicate  where  they  were  taken.  If  the  land  is  covered  with 


Parts  of  the  Tester  and  Equipment 

( 1)  A brass  alcohol  heater  consisting  of  an  alcohol  lamp 
with  a three-ply  wick  and  a circular  wind  guard  which 
also  acts  as  a support  to  hold  the  boiling  flask  at  the 
proper  distance  from  the  flame.  The  flask  rests  on 
the  triangular  brass  support  which  hooks  over  the 
top  of  the  heater.  The  lamp  is  provided  with  a per- 
forated disc  radiator  which  fits  around  the  neck  of 
the  lamp  and  protects  it  and  the  alcohol  from  undue 
heating.  It  also  helps  to  protect  the  flame  from  air 
currents. 

( 2)  A 300  cc.  Fyrex  glass  Erlenmeyer  boiling  flask  with  a 
100  cc.  capacity  mark.  The  inside  diameter  of  the 
neck  should  be  one  inch. 

(3)  A soil  measuring  cup  or  scoop  having  a capacity  of  9 cc. 

(4)  A small  brass  spoon  having  a capacity  of  0.8  cc.  for 

measuring  chemicals. 

(5)  An  iron  spatula  for  use  in  mixing  and  measuring  soil 

samples  and  chemicals. 

(6)  A container  for  distilled  or  rain  water. 

(7)  A set  of  chemicals  consisting  of  a bottle  containing  an 

intimately  ground  mixture  of  ten  parts  of  neutral 
barium  chloride  to  one  of  neutral  zinc  sulfide,  and  a 
vial  containing  strips  (2i/4"xl4")  of  lead  acetate  test 
paper. 

(8)  A towel. 

(9)  A box  of  matches. 

(10)  A standard  acidity  and  lime  chart  for  determining  de- 

gree of  acidity,  and  approximate  amount  of  lime 
needed  under  different  conditions. 

(11)  A carrying  case  of  wood. 


Modifications  from  first  tester;  Since  the  tester  was  first  described  in  Bul- 
letin 249,  Wis.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  (1915),  these  changes  have  been  made:  The 
alcohol  lamp  is  now  supplied  with  a separate  opening  for  filling.  The  soil 
measuring  cup  has  been  replaced  with  a small  scoop  which  is  more  convenient. 
The  boiling  flask  now  has  a 100  cc.  mark  which  eliminates  the  need  of  a 
measuring  cylinder.  A can  for  carrying  water  is  supplied  and  provision  is 
made  for  carrying  it  in  the  case.  The  chemicals  are  now  intimately  ground 
together  and  carried  in  the  dry  condition  and  measured  out  with  a small  round 
spoon.  This  is  made  possible  by  replacing  the  calcium  chloride  with  barium 
chloride  which  does  not  take  up  moisture  and  become  sticky  like  the  calcium 
chloride.  It  works  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the  calcium  chloride.  In  the 
dry  condition  the  chemicals  take  less  room  and  danger  of  loss  through  break- 
age is  less.  The  carrying  case  has  been  remodeled  to  accomodate  more  con- 
veniently the  different  parts.  A new  combination  acidity-and-lime  chart  has 
been  devised. 


Testing  Soils  for  Acidity 


5 


grass,  manure,  or  rubbish,  this  should  be  scraped  off  before  the 
soil  is  taken.  Soil  should  never  be  taken  below  the  plowed 
layer  unless  the  subsoil  is  to  be  tested. 

If  the  field  varies 
widely  in  fertility  or 
has  many  knolls  and 
low  places  it  is  best  to 
take  several  entirely 
separate  samples  from 
different  parts  of  the 
field.  If  part  of  the 
field  is  high  land  and 
part  low  land,  a sep- 
arate sample  should  be 
taken  from  both  places, 
and  in  no  case  should 
the  soil  from  high  land 
be  mixed  with  the  soil 
from  low  land  in  mak- 
ing up  a sample,  since 
the  results  then  might 
not  apply  to  any  part 
of  the  field.  Samples 
from  different  fields 
should  never  be  mixed. 

Different  parts  of  the 
same  field,  and  especi- 
ally the  different  fields  on  the  same  farm,  often  vary  greatly 
in  acidity. 


The  heater  is  made  of  brass  and  was  devised  es- 
pecially for  making  the  test  on  the  farm. 


Setting  Up  the  Tester  for  Use 

Remove  the  water  can  and  brass  heater  from  the  case.  Add 
alcohol  to  the  lamp  if  necessary.  Take  off  the  rubber  cap  and 
adjust  the  wick  so  that  it  is  just  slightly  more  than  one-eighth 
inch  above  the  metal  collar.  Turn  the  lamp  over  until  the 
end  of  the  wick  becomes  saturated  with  alcohol.  Put  the  lamp 
into  the  heater,  and  place  the  perforated  disc  radiator  over,  the 
neck  of  the  lamp.  Hook  the  triangular  flask  support  over  the 
top  of  the  heater.  The  tester  is  now  ready  for  use. 


a 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  312 


HOW  TO  MAKE  THE  TEST 


1.  Mix  and  pulverize  the  sample 
of  soil.  Fill  the  soil  measure  heap- 
ing full  with  soil  compacted  to  about 
the  same  extent  as  under  natural 
field  conditions,  and  strike  it  off 
level  full. 


2.  Transfer  the  measure  full  of 
s<wl  to  the  flask,  using  the  spatula 
in  case  the  soil  sticks  in  the  measure. 


3.  Dip  the  small  round  measur- 
ing spoon  gently  into  the  bottle  of 
chemicals  and  strike  off  just  level 
full  with  the  spatula,  allowing  the 
excess  to  drop  back  into  the  bottle. 


4.  Transfer  the  spoonful  of  chem- 
icals to  the  flask  containing  the 
soil.  Tap  the  spoon  gently  to  make 
the  chemicals  fall  out. 


Testing  Soils  for  Acidity 


7 


FOLLOW  DIRECTIONS  EXACTLY 


6.  Hold  the  flask  level  with  the 
line  of  flight  and  add  100  cc.  of  dis- 
tilled or  rain  water  by  filling  the 
flask  to  the  100  cc.  mark.  A meas- 
uring cylinder  may  also  be  used  to 
measure  the  water. 


6.  Shake  the  flask  a little,  and 
place  it  on  the  heater  and  light  the 
lamp.  In  about  five  to  seven  min- 
utes boiiing  begins  if  the  flame  is 
properly  regulated.  Watch  care- 
fully when  boiling  begins.  If  too 
violent  frothing  occurs  at  the  start, 
causing  foam  to  rise  clear  to  the 
neck  of  the  flask,  raise  the  flask  off 
the  support  for  a few  seconds  till 
the  foam  goes  down. 


7.  After  the  contents  have  boiled 
just  one  minute  (use  a watch)  care- 
fully place  directly  across  the  mouth 
of  the  flask  a strip  of  lead  acetate 
paper  which  has  been  moistened 
with  one  drop  of  water.  Press  the 
paper  firmly  against  the  top  edges 
of  the  flask  and  fold  the  ends  down- 
ward to  keep  the  paper  in  place. 
Allow  the  paper  to  remain  on  the 
flask  just  two  minutes  (use  a watch) 
with  continued  boiling,  and  then 
remove  the  test  paper  and  blow  out 
the  flame. 


8.  If  the  soil  is  acid,  the  under 
side  of  the  paper  will  be  darkened. 
Tile  greater  tlie  acidity  the  darker 
will  be  the  paper.  The  test  paper 
may  he  dritNl  quickly  by  placing  it 
on  the  flask  support  after  this  has 
cooled  a little.  Compare  the  dried 
paper  with  the  standard  acidity  and 
lime  chart,  and  determine  the  de- 
gree of  acidity  and  the  amount  of 
lime  needed.  Tlie  test  is  now  com- 
plete. The  test  paper  may  he  con- 
veniently iireserved  hy  pasting  It  in 
a notebook. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  312 


Making  Tests  in  the  Laboratory 

In  the  laboratory  a bunsen  burner,  ringstand,  and  wire  gauze 
may  be  conveniently  used  in  place  of  the  alcohol  heater.  The 
flame  of  the  bunsen  burner  should  be  regulated  to  a height  of 
about  3Y2  inches  and  the  wire  gauze  on  which  the  flask  rests 
should  be  about  two  inches  above  the  top  of  the  burner.  Start- 
ing with  water  of  ordinary  room  temperature,  it  will  take  about 
five  minutes  to  bring  the  contests  of  the  flask  to  boiling  if  the 
flame  is  properly  regulated.  The  burner  should  not  be  sub- 
jected to  wind  disturbances.  It  may  be  protected  by  means  of 
sheets  of  asbestos,  metal,  or  pieces  of  board. 

Making  Tests  at  Farmers’  Meetings 

Many  samples  of  soil  are 
sometimes  brought  to  farm- 
ers ’ meetings  to  be  tested. 
By  starting  with  hot  water, 
the  time  required  to  make 
a test  is  less  than  one-half 
what  it  otherwise  would  be. 
To  save  time,  a supply  of 
water  may  be  brought  to 
boiling  in  a kettle  or  other 
vessel. 

Principle  of  the  Test 

The  principle  of  the  test  is  as  follows:  When  zinc  sulfide 
(one  of  the  chemicals  used  in  the  test)  is  boiled  with  an  acid, 
hydrogen  sulfide  gas  is  given  off.  Hence,  if  a soil  is  acid,  it 
will  f Cause  the  evolution  of  this  gas.  The  more  acid  the  soil, 
the  more  rapid  will  be  the  formation  of  the  gas.  When  this 
gas  comes  in  contact  with  lead  acetate  paper  there  is  formed  a 
black  compound  which  darkens  the  paper  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  gas.  Barium  chloride  is  added  to  make  the  test 
more  sensitive.  By  using  definite  amounts  of  soil,  chemicals 
and  water,  and  by  boiling  for  a definite  time,  it  is  possible  to 
determine  the  degree  of  acidity  by  comparing  the  test  paper 
with  the  standard  acidity  and  lime  chart. 


FIG.  2.  THE  CARRYING  CASE 


^ The  carrying  case  may  bo  used  for  protec- 
tion against  wind  when  making  tests  in  the 
field. 


Testing  Soils  for  Acidity 


9 


Use  and  Care  of  the  Apparatus 


Immediately  after  each  use,  the  flask  should  he  emptied  and 
washed  out.  It  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  occasionally  by 
using  a small  rag  with  the 


wash  water  and  shaking 
‘Vigorously.  The  spatula 
and  measuring  scoop 
should  be  wiped  clean 
after  each  use.  The  rub- 
ber cap  should  be  placed 
over  the  neck  of  the  lamp 
to  prevent  evaporation 
and  spilling  of  the  alco- 
hol. Alcohol  evaporates 
more  easily  than  water 
and  hence  on  exposure 
the  remaining  alcohol  be- 
comes weaker  and  weaker, 
and  .finally  gives  too  low  a 
flame.  Occasionally  the 
lamp  should  be  entirely 

emptied  to  get  rid  of  accumulated  water.  After  cleaning  the 
apparatus,  pack  it  carefully  in  the  case.  The  proper  method 
of  packing  the  flash  is  indicated  in  fig.  3. 


FIG.  3.  THE  FLASK  PACKED  FOR 
PROTECTION 

Compactness  is  a great  aid  to  the  extension 
worker. 


PRECAUTIONS 

(1)  Water.  Neutral  water  must  be  used.  Water  of  poor  quality 

may  entirely  change  the  results.  Distilled  and  rain  water 
are  best.  Occasionally  unsatisfactory  distilled  water  is  ob- 
tained from  drug  stores  and  garages.  Rain  water,  collected 
a short  time  after  raining  starts  is  very  good  if  properly 
stored.  Clean  snow  water  is  also  very  good.  The  water  is 
best  stored  in  glass  or  earthenware  jars  or  bottles.  Water 
from  springs,  wells,  and  cisterns  is  often  alkaline  and  should 
not  be  used  unless  carefully  tested.  More  trouble  results 
from  the  use.  of  unsuitable  water  than  from  any  other  cause. 

(2)  The  lamp  wick  and  projx'r  lieating.  Adjust  the  wick  to  just 

slightly  more  than  one-eighth  inch  above  the  metal  collar 
and  trim  it  off  squarely  so  as  to  get  a flame  of  the  proper 
intensity.  A properly  regulated  flame  will  start  the  boiling 
in  flve  to  seven  minutes,  if  water  of  ordinary  room  tempera- 
ture is  used  at  the  beginning.  If  the  flame  is  too  strong,  the 
degree  of  acidity  indicated  will  be  too  high,  and  if  the  flame 
is  too  weak  the  degree  of  acidity  indicated  will  be  too  low. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  312 


(3)  Alcohol.  Use  alcohol  of  about  90  per  cent  strength.  If  the  al- 

cohol is  too  strong  the  flame  will  be  too  large.  Denatured 
alcohol  may  be  used.  Occasionally  the  lamp  should  be  emp- 
tied of  accumulated  water. 

(4)  Chemicals.  Use  only  chemicals  speciflcally  selected  and  guar- 

anteed for  use  with  this  test.  They  cannot  ordinarily  be 
obtained  from  a drug  store.  Much  of  the  ziac  sulflde  on  the 
market  is  alkaline,  and  does  not  give  the  proper  results. 

(5)  Boiling  over.  Do  not  let  the  flask  boil  over  (see  directions). 

(6)  Wiping  the  flask  dry.  Handle  the  flask  carefully,  and  always 

wipe  the  outside  perfectly  dry  before  heating,  or  there  will 
be  gr^al_danger  of  cracking  the  glass. 

(7)  Wind  protection.  In  making  the  test  do  not  allow  a strong 

wind  to  play  against  the  mouth  of  the  flask  or  on  the  flame. 
In  the  fleld  the  tester  may  be  protected  against  wind  by 
placing  it  in  the  wood  carrying  case. 

(8)  Keep  acids  and  alkalis  away.  Keep  all  acids  and  alkalis  away 

from  the  chemicals  and  soils  to  be  tested.  Most  soaps  con- 
tain alkali  and  if  used  in  cleaning  the  flask  must  be  entirely 
washed  out. 

(9)  Moistening  the  lead  acetate  test  paper.  Moisten  the  paper  with 

one  drop  of  water,  and  no  more,  just  before  it  is  placed  over 
the  mouth  of  the  flask.  If  too  much  water  is  used  the  dark- 
ening of  the  paper  will  not  be  regular  and  uniform. 

(10)  Check  results.  Check  your  operation  of  the  test  with  a soil 

sample  of  known  acidity. 

(11)  Poison.  The  barium  chloride  in  the  chemicals  is  bitter  and 

somewhat  poisonous.  Keep  the  chemicals  away  from  chil- 
dren. 

(12)  Follow  directions.  To  insure  reliable  results  always  conduct 

the  test  exactly  as  directed. 


Advantages  of  This  Test 

It  is  positive.  This  test  generally  gives  a more  positive  re- 
action than  other  tests  in  use.  This  is  especially  true  with 
soils  that  are  only  slightly  acid.  In  order  to  test  for  soil  acidity 
it  is  necessary  for  the  testing  reagents  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  soil  acids.  The  more  intimate  the  contact,  the  more  deli- 
cate and  positive  the  test  will  be.  Since  the  soil  acids  are  not 
very  soluble  in  water  it  is  necessary  to  use  testing  reagents 
which  are  either  soluble  in  water  or  else  very  finely  divided. 
In  the  new  test  both  a soluble  and  very  finely  divided  reagent 
are  used.  In  this  way  all  the  soil  acid  in  a sample  under  test 
is  allowed  to  act  and  produce  the  desired  reaction  of  the  test. 
To  make  the  test  still  more  delicate  and  positive,  the  entire 
reaction  is  finally  focused  in  the  narrow  neck  of  a flask  on  a 


Testing  Soils  for  Acidity 


11 


piece  of  white  paper.  The  color  change,  being  a darkening  of 
the  pure  white  paper,  is  easily  observed.  Since  the  test  paper 
never  comes  in  contact  with  the  soil,  such  objectionable  features 
as  absorption  of  coloring  matter  or  discoloration  by  the  soil 
are  entirely  overcome.  From  these  considerations  it  is  at  once 
apparent  that  this  test  is  more  sensitive  and  positive  than  the 
litmus  test. 

It  indicates  the  degree  of  soil  acidity.  The  power  of  any 
acid  to  exert  acidic  properties  depends  upon  two  things,  namely, 
the  amount  and  strength  of  the  acid  present.  By  degree  of 
soil  acidity  is  meant  the  power  of  the  active  soil  acids  to  exert 
acidic  properties.  It  is  an  average  measure  of  both  the  amount 
and  strength  of  active  acids  present.  A very  important  fea- 
ture of  this  test  is  that  it  indicates  the  degree  of  acidity.  This 
is  made  possible  because  definite  amounts  of  soil  and  reagents 
are  used  and  the  acidic  power  of  the  soil  is  allowed  to  react  for 
a definite  length  of  time  on  the  chemicals,  and  the  result  is 
compared  with  a definite  standard.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that 
the  acids  in  some  soils  are  stronger  or  are  in  a more  active  con- 
dition than  in  other  soils,  and  hence  produce  a stronger  reaction 
in  the  test.  This  is  as  it  should  be,  for  the  stronger  the  acids, 
as  well  as  the  larger  the  amount,  the  more  difficult  will  it  be 
for  plants  to  get  the  lime  they  need,  and  the  larger  should  be 
the  application  of  lime.  Since  this  test  indicates  the  degree  of 
active  acidity,  and  thus  the  seriousness  of  the  need  of  lime,  it  is 
superior  for  practical  purposes  to  a quantitative  method  which 
indicates  accurately  the  total  amounts  of  acids  present,  but 
does  not  take  into  consideration  the  strength  of  these  acids. 

It  is  nol;  affected  by  carbonic  acid.  Carbonic  acid  is  pres- 
ent in  all  soils,  but  it  is  beneficial  rather  than  injurious  to  crops. 
When  the  test  is  conducted  as  directed,  carbonic  acid  can  never 
make  the  soil  appear  acid.  Ordinarily  the  amounts  present 
in  the  soil  are  not  sufficient  to  affect  the  test.  By  boiling  one 
minute  before  applying  the  test  paper,  any  objectionable 
amounts  of  carbonic  acid  are  driven  out,  and  the  test  is  insured 
against  any  possible  misinterpretation  from  this  source. 

Test  is  simple.  The  test  does  not  require  a knowledge  of 
chemistry,  and  can  be  quickly  made  by  anyone  who  is  able  to 
follow  simple  directions. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  312 


Litmus  Paper  Test  Fairly  Reliable 

The  litmus  test  is  simple,  and  when  properly  made  with  a 
good  quality  of  paper  by  an  experienced  and  skillful  operator, 
it  gives  fairly  reliable  results.  However,  in  the  case  of  soils 
that  are  slightly  acid,  the  litmus  test  often  fails  to  give  a dis- 
tinct reaction  and  thus  causes  confusion.  The  paper  needs  to 
be  carefully  handled,  as  the  perspiration  on  a person’s  fingers 
very  often  reddens  the  paper. 

The  most  serious  objection  to  the  litmus  test  is  that  it  does 
not  show  the  degree  of  acidity  with  certainty,  not  making  it 
possible,  'therefore,  to  determine  the  amount  of  lime  which  should 
be  used  under  different  conditions.  The  rapidity  of  the  red- 
dening of  litmus  paper  depends  not  only  on  the  degree  of 
acidity  of  the  soil,  but  also  on  the  sensitiveness  of  the  paper 
used,  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil,  and  the  perfectness 
of  the  contact  of  the  soil  with  the  paper.  To  obtain  uniformity 
in  all  these  conditions  in  testing  different  soils  with  the  litmus 
paper  test  is  very  difficult,  and  it  is  not  to  be  expected,  there- 
fore, that  the  test  will  regularly  give  reliable  indications  as  to 
the  degree  of  acidity. 


RELATION  OF  DEGREE  OF  ACIDITY  TO  AMOUNT  OF 
LIME  NEEDED 

In  order  to  understand  how  much  lime  should  be  used  under 
different  degrees  of  acidity  and  conditions  of  cropping,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  something  about  the  nature  of  soil  acidity 
and  its  relation  to  plant  growth  and  the  supply  of  available 
lime. 


What  Is  Soil  Acidity? 

Soil  acidity  is  an  unbalanced  and  unfavorable  condition  of 
the  soil  in  which  there  is  an  excess  of  active  acids  over  bases, 
principally  lime.  Unfortunately  there  are  few  subjects  in  ag- 
riculture about  which  there  has  been  as  much  confusion  as  about 
soil  acidity.  There  is,  however,  nothing  mysterious  about  soil 
acidity,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  get  a clear  understanding  of  it. 
For  soils  to  become  acid  is  entirely  natural. 

Soils,  and,  in  fact,  most  of  the  materials  and  substances  in 
nature,  consist  largely  of  a combination  of  acids  and  bases. 


Testing  Soils  for  Acidity 


13 


Chemists  have  found  that  all  known  material  can  be  broken  up 
into  simple  substances  called  elements.  Some  materials  are  com- 
posed of  one  element,  some  of  two,  and  some  of  many  more. 
After  analyzing  all  known  materials,  they  have  found  that  there 
are  about  eighty  elements  out  of  which,  by  various  combina- 
tions, all  known  materials  are  formed. 

Iron,  gold,  phosphorus,  potassium,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  carbon, 
•and  calcium,  are  examples  of  elements,  and  they  combine  with 
each  other  or  other  elements  to  form  different  compounds. 
Some  elements  form  acids  when  they  combine  to  form  com- 
pounds, and  others  form  bases.  Common  vinegar  and  muriatic 
acid  are  typical  acids.  Lime  is  a base  formed  by  the  combina- 
tion of  calcium  and  oxygen.  Soaps  are  usually  alkaline,  due 
to  the  excess  of  bases  which  they  contain.  A peculiar  thing 
about  an  acid  and  a base  is  that  when  they  come  together  they 
always  combine  with  each  other  and  form  a neutral  compound 
called  a salt.  Common  table  salt  is  formed  when  hydrochloric 
acid  (muriatic  acid)  and  the  base,  sodium  hydroxide,  are  mixed 
together.  If  more  acid  is  added  than  there  is  base  with  which 
to  combine,  then  there  is  some  acid  left  over,  and  the  mixture 
is  acid  from  the  excess  of  acid.  If  there  is  an  excess  of  base, 
then  the  mixture  is  basic. 

The  particles  of  upland  soils  consist  largely  of  minerals, 
many  of  which  are  salts,  that  is,  combinations  of  acids  and  bases. 
When  there  is  an  excess  of  acids  over  bases  the  soil  is  acid.  If 
there  is  a great  excess  of  bases,  the  soil  is  alkaline.  Soil  acidity 
simply  indicates,  therefore,  an  excess  of  active  acids  over  bases 
in  the  soil ; and  hence  it  can  be  corrected  or  neutralized  by  add- 
ing a base,  such  as  lime,  which  is  the  most  important  base-acting 
substance  of  soils. 

Why  Do  Soils  Become  Acid? 

Upland  soils  become  acid  because  the  bases  in  them  are  leached 
out  and  used  up  by  crops  much  more  rapidly  than  the  acids. 
Marsh  soils  become  acid  due  to  the  formation  of  organic  acids 
in  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter  under  poorly  aerated 
conditions. 

When  water  comes  in  contact  with  the  soil  it  dissolves  out 
the  bases  from  the  particles  of  mineral  salts  or  compounds  that 
make  up  the  soil  to  a much  greater  extent  than  it  dissolves  out 
the  acid  constituents.  As  a result,  almost  all  soils  which 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  312 


have  25  inches  or  more  annual  rainfall  tend  to  become  acid 
due  to  the  more  rapid  leaching  away  of  the  bases.  A fair  esti- 
mate indicates  that  from  200  to  500  pounds  of  bases,  mostly 
lime,  are  leached  out  and  washed  away  annually  from  each 
acre  of  upland  in  Wisconsin,  while  the  leaching  of  acids  is 
much  less.  The  lime  which  is  leached  out  of  the  soil  passes  in 
solution  into  the  lakes  and  ocean  where  it  again  comes  out  of 
solution,  drops  to  the  bottom,  and  forms  new  limestone  deposits. 
The  more  a soil  is  cultivated  the  greater  the  leaching,  and  the 
more  rapidly  does  it  become  acid.  Many  crops  also  take  out 
larger  quantities  of  bases  than  of  acids  from  the  soil  thus  help- 
ing to  produce  an  acid  condition.  A ton  of  alfalfa  removes  about 
100  pounds  of  lime  carbonate. 

The  formation  of  acid  soils  is  thus  not  at  all  strange  or 
mysterious,  and  it  is  entirely  natural  for  soils  to  become  acid. 
Sandy  soils  leach  readily  and  are  usually  acid,  even  in  the  virgin 
condition.  Virgin  clay  and  silt  soils  are  sometimes  also  quite 
acid. 

Some  fields  which  are  situated  at  the  bases  of  slopes  or  in 
the  bottoms  of  vaUeys,  receive  lime  in  the  drainage  and  seepage 
water  from  the  higher  land,  and  hence  do  not  become  acid,  or 
do  so  only  very  slowly.  The  higher  parts  of  a field  usually  be- 
come acid  first.  Peat  marshes  surrounded  by  upland  soil  which 
is  well  supplied  with  lime,  are  usually  not  acid  because  they 
receive  considerable  lime  in  the  drainage  and  seepage  waters 
from  the  surrounding  land.  Peat  marshes  surrounded  by  sandy 
soils  low  in  lime  are  usually  acid. 

So  far,  nothing  has  been  said  about  organic  acids  that  may 
be  formed  when  green  crops  or  manure  are  plowed  under,  or 
when  dead  vegetation  of  any  kind  accumulates.  Some  writers 
state  that  soil  acidity  is  entirely  due  to  organic  acids  formed 
in  this  way.  In  the  case  of  upland  soils,  experiments  show 
that  the  organic  matter,  and  hence  organic  acids,  may  be  re- 
moved and  still  the  soils  remain  practically  as  acid  as  before, 
indicating  that  the  acidity  is  due  largely  to  mineral  acids 
formed  by  the  removal  of  bases  from  the  mineral  salts.  Some 
upland  soils  contain  very  little  organic  matter  and  yet  are  ex- 
tremely acid.  It  is  probably  true  that  the  acidity  of  acid  peats 
and  poorly  drained  soils  is  usually  due  largely  to  organic  acids. 
In  Avell-drained  and  aerated  soils  organic  acids  soon  decompose, 
and  therefore,  do  not  accumulate.  After  thorough  drainage  and 
cultivation  the  acidity  of  peat  marshes  often  becomes  less  due 


Testing  Soils  for  Acidity 


15 


to  the  leaching  out  and  decomposition  of  the  organic  acids. 
Plowing  under  heavy  crops  of  green  manure  such  as  rye  and 
buckrvvheat  may  produce  an  acidity  due  to  the  formation  of 
organic  acids.  This  acidity  is  temporary  and  usually  disappears 
in  a year. 

Why  Is  Soil  Acidity  Injurious? 

Soil  acidity  is  injurious  because  it  lowers  the  supply  of  avail- 
‘able  lime  and  other  bases  which  are  needed  by  plants  and  for 
the  favorable  physical,  chemical,  and  bacteriological  processes 
of  soils.  It  is  often  stated  that  soil  acidity  is  injurious  because 
it  attacks  and  injures  the  plant  roots  and  directly  affects  the 
bacteria  which  live  in  the  nodules  of  legumes  and  fix  nitrogen. 
The  results  of  recent  investigations  do  not  agree  entirely  with 
this  statement.  It  appears  that  when  soils  become  acid  the 
supplies  of  available  lime  and  other  bases  in  the  soil  become 
too  low  to  meet  the  needs  of  some  plants.  An  acid  condition  in 
most  cases  is  simply  the  positive  indication  that  the  supply  of 
available  lime  and  other  bases  is  getting  lowered. 

Even  acid  soils  still  contain  lime,  which  is  bound  up  with  the 
soil  acids,  but  since  there  is  an  excess  of  soil  acids,  all  of  which 
try  to  hold  on  to  the  lime,  it  makes  it  extremely  difficult  for 
some  plants  to  get  sufficient  lime  unless  more  is  added  to  the 
soil.  Lime  is  needed  by  all  plants  as  building  material  and  for 
the  neutralization  of  acids  formed  in  growth  processes. 

Plants  such  as  alfalfa  and  sugar  beets  require  large  amounts 
of  lime  and  have  comparatively  weak  feeding  powers  and  hence 
are  affected  greatly  when  a soil  becomes  acid.  As  was  prev- 
iously stated,  it  requires  about  100  pounds  of  lime  carbonate  to 
produce  a ton  of  alfalfa.  A ton  of  red  clover  requires  about 
75  pounds.  Oats,  rye,  wheat,  and  corn,  require  only  about  one- 
fifth  as  much  lime  as  alfalfa. 

It  is  thus  very  easy  to  understand  why  some  crops,  such  as 
alfalfa,  clover,  and  sugar  beets,  are  affected  by  an  acid  soil  much 
more  than  oats  and  rye,  for  example.  Some  non-legumes  (sugar 
beets  and  cabbage,  for  instance)  are  affected  just  as  much  by  an 
acid  condition  as  the  most  susceptible  legumes,  and  on  the 
other  hand,  some  legumes,  such  as  cowpeas  and  lupines,  are 
not  affected  any  more  than  oats  and  corn,  although  they  con- 
tain high  amounts  of  lime.  This  is  because  their  root  systems 
have  very  strong  feeding  powers,  and  hence  are  able  to  extract 
the  lime  they  need  even  though  the  soil  is  quite  acid  and  low  in 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  312 


available  lime.  The  oat  plant  is  low  in  lime  and  has  very 
strong  feeding  powers.  It  grows  much  better  on  acid  soils  than 
does  barley,  which  is  higher  in  lime  and  has  weaker  feeding 
powers.  A liberal  supply  of  lime  is  necessary  to  make  a good 
barley  soil.  Cabbage,  lettuce,  and  almost  all  garden  crops  re- 
quire large  amounts  of  lime.  Gardens  should  usually  be  limed 
if  the  soil  is  acid. 

The  special  lime  requirements  of  plants.  From  what  has 
been  said  it  is  apparent  that  whether  or  not  a plant  is  directly 
affected  by  an  acid  soil  condition  depends  on  three  factors, 
namely,  (1)  the  lime  content  of  the  plant,  (2)  the  rate  of  growth 
of  the  plant,  and  (3)  the  feeding  power  of  the  plant.  The 
higher  the  first  two  factors  are,  the  greater  the  need  of  available 
lime  and  the  greater  the  effect  of  the  acid  condition.  The  third 
factor  works  in  the  opposite  direction;  that  is,  the  stronger  the 
feeding  power,  the  less  is  the  effect  of  the  acidity.  The,  com- 
bined effect  of  all  three  factors  detennines  what  may  be  called  a 
plant’s  special  lime  requirement.  The  special  lime  require- 
ment of  a plant  refers  to  the  actual  lime  needs  of  the  plant  it- 
self, especially  as,  to  the  ease  and  rate  at  which  lime  must  he* 
secured  from  the  soil  hy  the  plant  for  normal  growth.  If  the 
special  lime  requirement  of  a plant  is  high,  then  it  is  greatly 
affected  by  an  acid  soil  condition.  Alfalfa  has  a higher  special 
lime  requirement  than  red  clover,  and  hence  is  more  sensitive 
to  soil  acidity.  Most  of  the  principal  legumes  gro^vn  in  the 
northern  states  have  quite  high  special  lime  requirements. 
Since  the  successful  growth  of  legumes  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  keep  up  the  nitrogen  and  humus  content  of  soils,  the  im- 
portance of  liming  acid  soils  cannot  be  over-emphasized. 

The  indirect  influence  of  soil  acidity.  Besides  the  direct  ef- 
fect in  preventing  some  plants  from  getting  sufficient  lime,  soil 
acidity  also  has  many  indirect  influences  on  plants  due  to  its 
effect  on  soil  fertility  in  general.  The  growth  and  multiplica- 
tion of  the  legume  bacteria,  and  in  fact,  almost  all  desirable  soil 
bacteria,  are  affected  unfavorably  by  a lack  of  available  lime 
and  other  bases,  due  to  an  acid  condition.  A good  supply  of 
lime  insures  successful  inoculation  and  nodule  development . of 
the  legumes.  It  also  makes  the  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potas- 
sium of  soils  more  available.  Lime  improves  the  physical  con- 
dition of  both  heavy  clay  soils  and  sands  by  making  the  clays 
more  open  and  workable,  and  the  sands  more  compact.  An 
abundance  of  lime  prevents  the  accumulation  of  soluble  toxic 


STANDARD  ACIDITY  AND  LIME  CHART 


Giving  tons  to  the  acre  of  finely  pulverized  limestone,  marl,  or  air-slaked 
lime  needed,  depending  on  degree  of  acidity,  kind  of  soil,  and  crops 
to  be  grown.  If  limestone  is  very  coarse  increase  the  amounts  by  one 
ton.  Use  quicklime  in  one-half  these  amounts. 

HIGH  LIME  REQUIREMENT  CROPPING  SYSTEMS. 

Special  and  highly  developed  farming — alfalfa,  sugar  beets,  tobacco, 
canning  peas,  cabbage  and  most  garden  crops. 

MEDIUM  LIME  REQUIREMENT  CROPPING  SYSTEMS 

General  farming  in  Northern  States — clover,  soy  beans, 
barley,  wheat,  oats,  corn,  etc. 

LOW  LIME  REQUIREMENT 
CROPPING  SYSTEMS 

General  farming  in  Southern  States. 
Acid  agriculture  of  Northern  States. 

POOR  SOILS  DEGREE  OF  ACIDITY  6000  SOILS 

1 

Ton 

None 

None 

VERY  SLIGHT 

None 

None 

None 

2 

Tons 

1 

Ton 

None 

SLIGHT 

None 

None 

2 

Tons 

Tons 

2 

Tons 

1 

Ton 

None 

2 

Tons 

3 

Tons 

3 

Tons 

2V2 

Tons 

2 

Tons 

STRONG 

2 

Tons 

3 

Tons 

4 

Tons 

4 

Tons 

3 

Tons 

2>^ 

Tons 

3 

Tons 

4 

Tons 

5 

Tons 

Poor  soils  include  sands,  light 
sandy  loams,  and  raw  peats. 

Good  soils  include  heavy  sandy 
loams,  clay  loams,  clays,  loams, 
mucks,  and  well-decomposed 
peats. 

The  foregoing  recommendations  are  for  average  present  day  economic 
conditions  in  the  United  States.  Where  agriculture  is  more  highly  devel- 
oped use  more  lime  ; where  less  developed  use  less  lime. 

'4 


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I 


Testing  Soils  for  Acidity 


17 


or  poisonous  substances  in  soils.  By  improving  conditions  for 
plant  growth  lime  favors  early  maturity,  hardiness,  sturdiness 
and  freedom  from  disease  injury  and_ helps  to  prevent  lodging 
of  grain.  Lime  is  really  the  great  regulator  of  soil  fertility. 
Since  lime  has  many  beneficial  effects  on  soil  fertility,  the  state 
of  soil  fertility  required  by  a plant  is  also  a factor  which  de- 
termines the  lime  supply  which  should  be  maintained ; and  when 
the  general  soil  fertility  factor  is  combined  with  the  special  lime 
requirement  of  a plant,  there  is  obtained  what  may  be  called  the 
general  lime  requirement,  or  simply  lime  requirement  of  the 
plant  or  crop. 

There  are  only  a few  cases  where  lime  may  be  detrimental. 
Potato  scab  and  possibly  a root  rot  of  tobacco  are  favored  by  a 
large  excess  of  lime.  When  the  potato  scab  and  root  rot  of 
tobacco  are  properly  controlled,  lime  increases  the  yield  of  both 
crops.  Of  the  garden  crops,  the  watermelon  is  the  only  im- 
portant one  that  usually  grows  better  on  an  acid  soil.  This, 
like  the  potato  scab,  may  again  be  due  to  a plant  disease  which 
can  live  in  the  soil  and  is  favored  by  lime.  An  excess  of  lime 
sometimes  causes  chlorosis,  a whitening  of  the  leaves,  of  certain 
fruit  plants  especially  the  citrus  fruits. 

How  Much  Lime  Should  the  Farmer  Use? 

The  amount  of  lime  * which  should  be  used  depends  upon 
fou*r  factors, — the  degree  of  acidity  of  the  soil,  the  kind  of  soil, 
the  lime  requirements  of  the  crops  to  be  grown,  and  the  kind 
and  quality  of  the  lime.  The  amounts  based  on  these  four  fac- 
tors are  given  on  the  chart. 

Aside  from  the  factors  stated,  the  agricultural  use  of  lime 
must  be  considered  as  an  investment  on  which  the  farmer  is 
justified  in  expecting  a profitable  return,  and  hence,  from  an 
economic  standpoint,  the  rate  of  application  should  be  such 
that  the  highest  return  may  he  secured  for  the  money  available 
for  investment.  In  its  broadest  consideration,  the  rate  of  ap- 
plication which  will  give  the  most  desirable  net  return  dejiends 
upon  the  degree  of  acidity  of  the  soil,  the  crops  to  be  grown, 
the  quality  and  total  cost  of  the  lime  to  be  applied,  and  the 
general  fertility  and  value  of  the  land.  Where  lime  is  cheap 
and  land  values  are  high,  heavier  applications  can  be  profitably 


* The  term  lime  is  used  in  this  hulleiiii  as  a general  torm  to  include  all 
roriiis  of  material  used  for  correcting  acid  soils. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  312 


made  than  where  the  opposite  conditions  hold.  Ten  or  twenty 
tons  to  the  acre  of  ground  limestone  may  be  applied  on  most 
soils  without  harm  and  usually  with  good  effect  on  crops,  but 
it  is  generally  not  profitable  to  apply  these  amounts  in  order  to 
push  production  beyond  a certain  point.  Much  smaller  amounts 
practically  always  bring  the  desired  results.  Undoubtedly  as 
agriculture  becomes  more  highly  developed  a higher  plane  of 
available  lime  supply  will  need  to  be  maintained,  and  hence 
the  amounts  now  recommended  will  then  be  too  low.  In  the 
discussion  which  follows  and  the  recommendations  that  are  made, 
it  is  assumed  that  average  present  day  economic  conditions 
prevail  and  that  a good  quality  of  lime  is  to  be  used. 

Use  lime  according  to  degree  of  soil  acidity.  The  most  im- 
portant factor  affecting  the  rate  of  application  of  lime  is  the 
degree  of  soil  acidity.  Enough  lime  should  be  added  to  an  acid 
soil  to  neutralize  the  strongest  of  the  active  acids  present,  in 
order  that  plants  and  desirable  soil  bacteria  may  not  have  to 
compete  with  these  strong  acids  to  get  the  supply  of  lime  and 
such  other  bases  as  potassium  and  magnesium  which  they  need 
for  growth.  Obviously  the  greater  the  degree  of  acidity, — that 
is,  the  greater  the  amount  of  strong  acids  present, — the  more  lime 
must  there  be  added  to  raise  the  available  supply  to  a certain  de- 
sired level.  Plants  have  certain  powers  of  getting  lime  and  other 
bases  from  the  soil  and  are  well  able  to  compete  with  weak  acids, 
hence,  it  is  not  necessary  to  neutralize  all  the  active  acids  in  a 
soil.  Fortunately,  when  lime  is  applied,  the  stronger  acids  be- 
come neutralized  first. 

Use  lime  according  to  kind  of  soil.  The  second  factor  men- 
tioned which  affects  the  amount  of  lime  that  should  be  used  is 
the  kind  of  soil  under  consideration.  On  the  chart,  soils  have 
been  divided  into  two  groups, — poor  soils,  and  good  soils.  Under 
poor  soils  are  included  sands,  light  sandy  loams,  and  raw  peats. 
Under  good  soils  are  included  heavy  sandy  loams,  silt  loams,  clay 
loams,  clays,  loams,  mucks,  and  well  decomposed  peats.  A dis- 
tinction is  made  on  the  chart  in  the  lime  recommendations  for 
these  two  groups  of  soils.  Applications  are  made  for  a less 
degree  of  acidity  in  the  case  of  poor  soils  than  in  the  case  of 
the  good  soils.  This  is  done  because  the  total  amount  of  lime 
still  remaining  bound  up  in  rather  insoluble  compounds  in  the 
slightly  acid  poor  soils  is  lower  in  amount  and  availability  than 
it  is  in  the  slightly  acid  but  otherwise  good  soils. 

In  this  connection  it  is  further  to  be  noted  that  in  acid,  but 


Testing  Soils  for  Acidity 


19 


otherwise  good  or  fertile  soils,  plants  make  a more  vigorous 
growth  than  in  a poor  soil,  and  hence  exert  a greater  feeding 
power  for  the  lime  still  remaining  in  the  soil  in  the  form  of 
difficultly^  soluble  compounds.  The  processes  making  lime  avail- 
able are  also  more  active  in  the  fertile  soils  than  in  the  poor 
soils.  The  manure  which  may  have  been  applied,  and  other 
organic  matter  usually  existing  in  fertile  soils,  contain  lime 
which  is  liberated  on  decay,  and  may  be  used  by  growing  plants. 
This  explains  why  sometimes  fair  to  good  crops  of  alfalfa  and 
very  often  good  crops  of  red  clover  are  grown  on  slight  to 
medium  acid  soils  if  they  are  otherwise  in  a fertile  condition, 
or  are  heavily  manured.  Many  virgin  or  comparatively  new 
upland  soils  are  quite  acid,  but  otherwise  fertile,  and  produce 
luxuriant  crops  of  red  clover.  However,  after  ten  to  twenty 
years  of  cropping,  red  clover  usually  responds  markedly  to 
liming  on  these  soils.  Poor  sandy  soils,  when  more  than  slightly 
acid,  always  respond  most  markedly  to  liming. 

However,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  lime  good  soils,  which 
usually  means  the  different  loams,  mucks,  and  heavier  soils,  it 
is  advisable  to  use  at  least  two  tons  for  even  the  lowest  rate  of 
application,  as  is  indicated  on  the  chart.  There  are  several 
reasons  for  this  practice.  When  these  soils  once  show  a degree 
of  acidity  which  is  high  enough  to  require  liming,  their  total  ^ 
active  acidity  has  become  so  high  (much  higher  than  in  sandy 
soils)  that  at  least  two  tons  of  lime  are  needed  to  neutralize  the 
strongest  of  the  large  amounts  of  acids  present  and  again  raise 
the  supply  of  available  lime  to  the  desired  level.  Furthermore, 
at  least  two  tons  of  lime  are  needed  to  produce  the  desired  im- 
provement in  the  physical  condition  of  the  heavier  soils  when 
they  once  become  quite  acid.  It  is  also  more  difficult  to  get  the 
lime  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  heavier  soils,  and  hence  it  is 
harder  to  get  results  with  small  applications  on  these  than  it  is 
on  the  sands. 

Use  lime  according  to  nature  of  crops  or  cropping  system. 

The  third  factor  mentioned  as  affecting  the  amount  of  lime  to  be 
used  is  the  lime  requirements  of  the  crops  to  be  grown.  Ob- 
viously, the  higher  the  lime  requirements  of  the  crops,  the  more 
lime  should  there  be  added  in  order  to  bring  the  supply  of 
available  lime  up  to  the  needed  level.  Since  crops  are  usually 
grown  in  some  sort  of  a crop  rotation,  or  more  broadly  speak- 
ing, cropping  system,  it  is  necessary  for  practical  purposes  to 
speak  of  the  lime  requirement  of  the  whole  cropping  system 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  312 


practiced  on  any  field  under  consideration.  Enough  lime  should  • 
be  added  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  highest  lime  requiremenf 
crop  in  the  rotation,  and  then  all  will  be  well  supplied.  On 
this  basis  three  degrees  of  lime  requirement  for  diffepnt  crop- 
ping systems  are  conveniently  made  as  follows: 

1.  High  lime  requirement  rotations  or  cropping  systems: 
This  includes  special  farming  in  which  are  grown  alfalfa,  sugar 
beets,  canning  peas,  tobacco,  cabbage,  onions,  and  most  garden 
crops. 

2.  Medium  lime  requirement  rotations  or  cropping  systems: 
This  includes  average  present  day  general  farming  in  the 
northern  states,  in  which  are  grown  mainly  clover,  soybeans, 
timothy,  barley,  wheat,  corn,  oats,  rye,  and  potatoes. 

3.  Low  lime  requirement  rotations  or  cropping  systems: 
This  includes  (a)  the  so-called  acid  agriculture  of  the  northern 
states  in  which  are  grown  lupines,  vetch,  serradella,  cowpeas, 
redtop,  millet,  rye,  oats,  and  buckwheat,  and  soybeans  and  alsike 
clover  to  a limited  extent;  and  (b)  general  farming  in  the 
southern  states  in  which  are  grown  cowpeas,  velvet  bean,  crim- 
son clover,  cotton,  corn,  oats,  and  sugar  cane. 

The  so-called  acid  agriculture  of  the  northern  states,  or  some 
modification  of  it,  may  be  practiced  where  land  is  cheap  and 
lime  is  difficult  to  obtain.  As  agriculture  develops  it  will  un- 
doubtedly be  more  profitable  in  many  cases  to  replace  this  sys- 
tem with  the  medium  lime  requirement  system  in  which  are 
grown  larger  or  else  more  valuable  crops.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  general  farming  in  the  southern  states. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  although  oats  and  rye  have  a low  lime 
requirement  and  are  placed  in  the  low  lime  requirement  crop- 
ping systems,  they  are  also  placed  in  the  medium  lime  require- 
ment systems  because  they  are  standard  crops  grown  in  most 
general  farming  systems  regardless  of  lime  requirements.  The 
same  is  true  of  many  other  crops.  Liming  acid  soils  is,  however, 
beneficial  to  them  as  it  is  to  almost  all  crops.  Corn  is  placed 
in  the  medium  lime  requirement  group  for  the  northern  states, 
and  in  the  low  lime  requirement  group  for  the  southern  states. 
This  is  because  lime  hastens  growth  and  maturity  of  corn,  which 
is  much  more  important  in  the  northern  states  than  in  the 
southern  states.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  weathering  pro- 
cesses making  lime  available  are  more  active  in  the  south  than 
in  the  north,  and  hence  a lower  plane  of  lime  supply  is  ade- 
quate in  the  south. 


Testing  Soils  for  Acidity 


21 


If  the  reader  is  especially  interested  in  a particular  plant 
not  indicated  on  the  chart  or  cropping  systems  just  given,  he 
is  referred  to  the  special  list  of  lime  requirements.  In  this  list 
are  given  the  lime  requirements  of  a large  number  of  plants. 
These  data  were  compiled  by  the  writer  from  all  available 
sources  of  information.  Nine  degrees  of  lime  requirements  are 
recognized,  and  are  designated  as  follows,  going  from  lowest  to 
highest  requirement: 

( 1 ) very  low 

(2)  very  low  plus 

(3)  low 

(4)  low  plus 

(5)  medium 

(6)  medium  plus 

(7)  high 

(8)  high  plus 

(9)  very  high 

Plants  with  a high  or  greater  than  a high  lime  requirement 
should  receive  lime  as  indicated  on  the  chart  under  high  lime 
requirement  cropping  systems.  Plants  with  a low  plus,  medium, 
or  medium  plus,  lime  requirement  should  receive  lime  as  directed 
under  medium  lime  requirement  cropping  systems.  Plants  with 
less  than  a low  plus  lime  requirement  should  receive  lime  as 
directed  under  low  lime  requirement  cropping  systems. 

The  Lime  Requiremejs^t  of  Different  Plants 


Kind  of  plant 


Alfalfa 

Bean,  field 

Bean,  garden  . . . 

Bean,  soy  

Bean,  velvet 

Clover,  sweet  . . . 

Clover,  red  

Clover,  mammoth 
Clover,  alsike  . . . 
Clover,  crimson  . 
Clover,  white  ... 
Clover,  Japanese 

Cowpea 

Impine,  blue  .... 
Peas,  garden  . . . . 

Peanuts  

Serradella 

Vetch,  common  . 
Vetch,  hairy  . . . . 


Lime  requirement 


I.  legumes 


Very  high 

Low 

Medium 

Medium 

Very  low  plus 

High 

Medium  plus 

Medium 

Low  plus 

Low  plus 

Low 

Low 

Low 

Very  low  plus 

High 

Medium 

Low 

Low 

Low 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  312 


II.  NON-LEGUMES 
(a)  Cereals 


Kind  of  plant  % 

Barley  

Buckwheat  

Corn  

Oats  

Rice  ...  V 

Rye  

Wheat  (winter)  

Wheat  (spring)  


Lime  requirement 
Medium  plus 
Low 

Low  plus 
Very  low 
Low 

Very  low 
Low  plus 
Medium 


Italian  rye  grass . . . . 

Johnson  grass 

Meadow  fescue  

Kentucky  blue  grass 

Millet  

Orchard  grass  

Perennial  rye  grass.  . 

Redtop  

Timothy  


(b)  Hay  and  pasture  grasses 

Low 

Low 

Low  plus 

Low 

Low 

Low  plus 

Low 

Very  low 

Low  plus 


(c)  Fiber  crops 

Cotton  

Flax  

Hemp  


Very  low  plus 
Very  low 
Medium 


(d)  Miscellaneous  crops 

Hops  

Potato,  common  

Potato,  sweet  

Rape  

Sugar  beet 

Sorghum  

Sugar  cane 

Tobacco  

Turnip  


Medium  plus 
Low  plus 
Low 

Medium  plus 

Very  high 

Low 

Low 

High 

Medium 


Cabbage  . . 

Carrot 

Cauliflower 

Cranberry 

Celery  

Grape  

Kohl-rabi  . 
Lettuce  . . . 
Onion 

Rhubarb  . . 
Radish  . . . . 
Spinach  . . . 
Strawberry 


(e)  Garden  crops 


.1  High 
Medium  plus 
High 

. Very  low 
Very  high 
Medium 
High 

. Very  high 
Very  high 
Low  plus 
Medium 
Very  high 
Low 


Sheep  sorrel 


(f)  Weeds 


(g)  Trees 

Chestnut 

Mulberry  

Oak 

Pine  


Very  low 


Medium 
High  plus 
Low 

Very  low 


Testing  Soils  for  Acidity 


23 


Amount  to  be  used  varies  with  kind  of  lime.  The  amount 
of  lime  which  should  be  applied  depends  also  on  the  kind  and 
quality  of  material  used.  There  are  two  main  kinds  or  classes 
of  lime  used  in  soil  improvement,  namely,  the  carbonate  class 
and  the  quick  lime  class.  The  carbonate  class  includes  pulver- 
ized limestone,  marl,  ground  shells,  and  air-slaked  waste  or  by- 
product lime  from  the  quick  lime  industry,  beet  sugar  manu- 
facturing, and  other  processes  and  industries.  Waste  lime  is 
often  not  entirely  in  the  carbonate  form  and  contains  some  quick- 
lime. Quicklime  is  made  by  heating  limestone,  which  drives  out 
the  carbonic  acid.  It  is  on  the  market  in  the  form  of  lump  lime 
and  ground  quick  lime.  By  adding  a limited  amount  of  water 
to  quick  lime  a fine  powder  called  hydrated  lime  is  produced. 
The  quality  (purity,  fineness,  and  moisture  content)  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  lime  varies  a great  deal. 

Limestone  should  be  pulverized  to  about  the  fineness  of  ground 
feed.  The  coarser  grades  contain  considerable  material  the  size 
of  kernels  of  wheat  and  corn.  The  finer  the  limestone  the  more 
quickly  does  it  become  available.  Coarse  material  furnishes  a 
reserve  which  becomes  available  slowly.  As  indicated  on  the 
chart,  the  amounts  of  pulverized  limestone  should  be  increased 
somewhat  when  it  is  coarse.  The  figures  in  the  chart  refer  to 
a limestone  equal,  at  least  in  purity  or  neutralizing  power,  to 
90  per  cent  calcium  carbonate.  If  a poorer  grade  is  used,  the 
amounts  should  be  increased  accordingly.  Good  grades  of 
marl,  waste  lime,  and  others  of  the  carbonate  class  should  be 
used  in  about  the  same  amounts  as  finely  pulverized  limestone. 
If  they  contain  considerable  moisture,  or  are  of  poor  quality, 
the  amounts  should  be  increased  accordingly.  Fifty-six  pounds 
of  quick  lime  are  equal  to  one  hundred  pounds  of  pulverized 
limestone.  Quick  lime  is  also  more  soluble  and  acts  more 
quickly.  Hence,  only  about  one-half  as  much  quick  lime  as 
pulverized  limestone  is  needed.  Most  of  the  limestones  in  Wis- 
consin are  dolomitic,  that  is,  they  are  a mixture  of  calcium  and 
magnesium  carbonate.  Fortunately,  the  experimental  evidence 
so  far  indicates  that  the  dolomitic  limestones  are  as  good  as  the 
pure  calcium  limestones  for  agricultural  purposes. 

How  Long  Does  Lime  Last? 

The  question  is  often  asked,  “How  long  will  an  application 
of  lime  last?”  Crops  and  leaching,  annually  remove  from  each 
acre  of  upland  in  Wisconsin  from  200  to  500  pounds  of  lime 
carbonate.  A ton  will  thus  last  from  four  to  ten  years. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  312 


How  Soon  Does  Lime  Give  Results? 

If  the  lime  is  well  mixed  with  the  soil  it  usually  gives  results 
the  first  year.  It  is  very  important  to  note,  however,  that  one 
year  is  entirely  inadequate  to  demonstrate  the  value  of  liming. 
The  maximum  benefit  usually  does  not  appear  till  the  second 
or  third  year,  or  even  later.  An  acid  condition  in  an  upland 
soil  is  usually  the  result  of  many  years  of  leaching,  and  an  acid 
soil  may  be  said  to  be  “chronically  sick.”  Lime  is  the  specific 
which  always  effects  a sure  cure,  but  it  may  take  several  years. 
It  is  the  only  material  within  the  farmer’s  reach  which  will 
do  this,  and  fortunately,  there  exists  in  most  states  an  absolutely 
inexhaustible  supply  of  this  precious  material.  To  apply  lime 
to  the  soil  is  to  return  something  which  has  been  taken  away, 
for  the  limestone  deposits  come  from  the  leaching  of  the  soil. 
These  limestone  deposits  are  like  the  farmer’s  manure  heap, — 
both  came  from  the  soil,  and  both  must  be  returned  if  soil  fertil- 
ity is  to  be  maintained.  ' 

o' 

How  Should  the  Farmer  Proceed  in  Liming? 

(1)  Have  the  county  agent,  experiment  station,  or  someone 
else  familiar  with  the  method,  test  for  acidity  the  soil  that  is  to 
be  put  into  alfalfa,  clover,  soybeans,  canning  peas,  sugar  beets, 
or  other  medium  to  high  lime  requirement  crop  the  coming  year 
or  year  later  and  determine  how  much  lime,  if  any,  is  needed. 
(See  page  4 for  directions  in  taking  the  soil  sample).  Always 
have  the  soil  tested  before  buying  lime,  for  liming  may  not  be 
needed. 

(2)  If  the  soil  is  acid  find  out  from  the  county  agent,  ex- 
periment station,  or  some  other  source  where  lime  may  be  se- 
cured most  advantageously  and  apply  it,  preferably  in  the  fall, 
to  the  plowed  ground.  Otherwise  apply  it  early  in  the  spring. 
Mix  the  lime  thoroughly  with  the  plowed  soil.  Only  in  case  of 
emergency  apply  lime  as  a top-dressing  after  clover  and  alfalfa 
fields  have  been  started. 

(3)  Leave  an  unlimed  strip  and  watch  results  continuously 
from  year  to  year. 

(4)  Use  phosphatv.  ‘ nd  potash  fertilizers  with  lime,  where 
need 

(r  lie  permits  have  all  the  fields  tested,  and  if  they 

re  ac.  V" regularly  to  one  or  ore  fields  each  year. 

(G)  in  the  course  of  five  to  ten  years  retest  the  limed  field 
to  see  if  more  lime  is  needed. 


June,  1920 


c>  .1 

Bulletin  313 


The  Occurrence  of 
Red  Calves  in  Black 
Breeds  of  Cattle 


Has  This  Ever  Happened  In  Your  Herd? 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


DIGEST 


Inheritance  of  color  is  a practical  breedino  problem.  For  ex- 
ample, red  or  red-and-wliite  calves  occasionally  appear  in  black  or 
black-and-white  breeds  of  cattle.  The  scientist's  discoveries  answer 
the  breeder’s  questions  about  off-color  calves.  Pages  3 to  4. 

In  the  mating:  of  black  and  red  the  offspring  are  black;  that  is, 
black  is  dominant  and  red  is  recessive.  Red  calves  appear  only 
when  both  parents  are  red;  when  one  parent  is  red  and  the  other 
is  black,  but  carries  red  from  some  ancestor;  or  when  both  parents 
are  black  but  carry  red,  as  is  the  case  when  red  calves  appear  in 
purebred  black  breeds.  The  chance  is  one  in  four  that  a red  calf 
will  be  produced  when  two  blacks  carrying  red  are  mated. 
Pages  5 to  8. 

All  breeds  are  of  mixed  origin  and  include  in  . tbeir  ancestry 
animals  of  various  colors.  Adoption  of  breed  standards  gradually 
produces  uniformity,  but  the  recessive  characters,  such  as  red  color 
in  black  breeds,  are  carried  as  an  undercurrent  for  many  genera- 
tions. Pages  8 to  10. 

The  Aberdeen-Angus  breed  is  believed  to  be  of  black  foundation 
stock  with  red  crosses.  Red  Aberdeen-Angus  calves  are  occasionally 
dropped,  especially  where  there  is  considerable  inbreeding,  which 
tends  to  bring  to  the  surface  the  undercurrent  red.  If  bred  together 
these  red  animals  produce  only  red  offspring.  Pages  10  to  19. 

The  Galloway  breed  has  a history  similar  to  that  of  the  Angus. 
The  off-color  calves  dropped  are  more  yellowish  than  dark  red. 
Pages  19  to  2 0. 

The  cattle  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  breed  were  largely  red  up  to 

1750.  When  black-and-white  cattle  from  Jutland  were  introduced 
into  Holland  that  color  became  the  more  popular.  Red-and-white 
cattle  are  still  common  there  and  are,  in  Friesland,  registered  in  a 
separate  section  in  the  official  herdbook.  Pages  20  to  25. 

A strong  prejudice  against  red-and-Avhite  calves  exists  among 
American  Holstein  breeders.  Such  calves  cannot  be  entered  in  the 
American  herdbook  and  their  appearance  is  usually  ignored  in  rec- 
ords of  the  herd.  Their  occurrence  often  raises  suspicion  as  to  the 
purity  of  breeding.  Pages  25  to  28. 

An  understanding  of  the  simple  facts  of  inheritance  is  of  con- 
siderable economic  importance.  Lack  of  knowledge  of  these  facts 
causes  misunderstandings  and  unjust  criticism.  In  the  case  of  a 
bull  of  best  breeding  which  sired  two  red-and-white  calves  in  a pure- 
bred herd,  the  scientist’s  explanation  prevented  a lawsuit. 
Pages  28  to  32. 

Hoth  parents  are  ecjually  to  blame  for  the  throwing  of  a red  calf 
in  a black  breed.  Investigation  of  the  breeding  is  desirable,  since 
the  red  character  may  be  introduced  by  mixed  breeding. 
Pages  32  to  34. 

Bulls  may  be  so  tested  that  they  can  be  guaranteed  to  produce  no 
red  calves,  but  it  is  not  certain  that  a sufficient  increase  in  price 
could  be  obtained  to  make  the  practice  advisable  except  in  the  case 
of  valuable  animals  which  are  to  be  used  in  large,  well-managed 
purebred  herds.  Page  3 4. 

Wider  knowledge  of  the  underlying  principles  of  heredity  would 
prevent  much  loss  to  breeders  and  would  work  more  directly  to  final 
elimination  of  red  or  red-and-white  animals.  Dispersal  of  herds  and 
vealing  of  heifers  from  high  milk-producing  strains  cause  an  un- 
necessary loss.  A more  liberal-minded  attitude  should  result  from 
study  of  discoveries  in  heredity.  Pages  3 4 to  35. 


The  Occurrence  of  Red  Calves 
in  Black  Breeds  of  Cattle* 

Leon  J.  Cole  and  Sarah  V.  H.  Jones 

Color  is  an  important  factor  in  the  livestock  industry  be- 
cause breeders  have  come  to  accept  certain  colors  as  standard 
for  certain  breeds.  The  Guernsey  breeder  avoids  animals 
with  dark  muzzles;  breeders  of  Duroc-Jersey  swine  dislike  to 
see  black  spots  on  the  belly  and  legs;  a bay  Perclieron  stallion 
would  not  generally  be  chosen  to  head  a Perclieron  stud ; a 
red-and-white  calf  appearing  in  a herd  of  imrebred  Ilolsteiii- 
Friesian  cattle  often  brings  a whole  lierd  under  suspicion. 
Yet  the  offending  animal  may  be  equal  to  the  best  in  other 
respects,  and,  in  spite  of  popular  opinion  to  the  contrary,  Ms 
breeding  may  be  equally  pure.  It  is  only  the  agreement  to 
accept  certain  colors  as  the  right  colors  that  makes  the  animal 
undesirable. 

The  inheritance  of  black  and  red  color  in  (‘attle,  esjiecially 
the  appearance  of  red  calves  in  breeds  whose  standard  color 
is  black,  is  a troublesome  matter  to  the  breeder.  The  appear- 
ance of  such  a calf  leads  to  questioning  the  purity  of  the  breed- 
ing, and  misunderstanding  and  lawsuits  may  result  in  conse- 
quence. From  the  standpoint  of  heredity,  however,  the  matter 
of  color  is  relatively  simple,  and  the  a]>plication  of  certain 
definite  scientific  laws  solves  the  ])roblem  for  the  breedei*. 

A half-century  ago  an  Austrian  monk,  Gregor  Mendel, 
worked  out  a definite  rule  by  which  he  could  ])redict  what 
characters  would  ay)pear  in  the  offs[)riug  of  ])lants  on  which 
lie  was  experimenting  and  in  what  relative  numbei's  the  char- 
acters might  be  expected  to  apj)ear.  Later  investigators  found 
his  results  correct  and  his  rule  came  to  be  known  as  Mendel’s 
law.  Upon  this  law  is  based  the  work  of  the  student  of 
heredity. 

The  plant  breeder  has  been  able  to  make  greater  nse  of 
the  results  of  these  experiments  than  has  the  animal  breeder, 
largely  because  animals  re(iuire  longer  time  for  i'ej)rodnction 
and  experimental  animals  cost  more  than  experimental  ])lants. 
Other  conditions  than  heredity*  iuMuence  the  develo])inent  of 


Paper  No.  23  from  the  Department  of  Genetics. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  313 


many  characters  and  make  exact  results  difficult  to  obtain. 
For  example,  the  development  of  milk  production  in  a dairy 
cow  of  carefully  bred,  high  milking  strain  is  dependent  on 
conditions  of  feeding,  care,  management  and  the  like,  and  it 
is  difficult  to  say  how  much  of  the  final  result  in  milk 
production  is  due  to  an  inherited  tendency  and  how  much  to 
other  conditions. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  other  characters  which  are 
very  little,  if  at  all,  influenced  by  the  conditions  under  which 
the  animal  grows  and  lives.  Color  is  one  of  these ; it  develops 
wholly  according  to  the  inheritance  from  the  parents.  This 
fact,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  laboratory  results  with  smaller 
animals  apply  also  to  farm  animals,  allows  the  scientist  to 
obtain  very  satisfactory  and  definite  results  in  his  study  of 
the  inheritance  of  color.  For  this  reason  he  is  able  to  offer 
the  practical  breeder  an  explanation  and  a practical  solution 
of  his  difficulty. 

That  red  calves  occasionally  appear  from  purebred  stock 
in  probably  all  the  black  breeds  of  cattle  is  generally  known. 
This  is  true  of  the  Angus,  Galloway  and  Kerry,  which  are  com- 
monly regarded  as  solid  black  breeds.  It  is  also  true  of  the 
Holstein-Friesian,  which  is  in  this  connection  to  be  considered 
as  a black  breed,  since  white  spotting  is  not  taken  into  con- 
sideration. 

The  occurrence  of  white  on  an  animal  is  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent matter  and  is  not  related  in  inheritance  to  the  color 
of  the  pigment,  which  in  cattle  may  be  brownish,  black,  red, 
dun,  yellow  or  some  shade  of  fawn.  In  conjunction  with  any 
of  these  colors  there  maj  be  no  white,  as  in  some  Angus  or 
Galloways,  or  a little  on  the  under  parts,  as  in  others ; or  there 
may  be  a considerable  amount,  as  in  most  Hokstein-Friesians, 
the  present  fashion,  in  fact,  being  toward  a predominance  of 
white. 

The  unexpected  appearance  of  these  ‘‘off  color”  calves  is 
variously  interpreted  as  being  a reversion,  or  as  indicating 
impurity  of  breeding,  or  the  unwelcome  calf  is  simply  called  a 
“sport,”  no  explanation  of  its  occurrence  being  offered.  A 
review  of  the  history  of  the  breeds,  however,  together  with  a 
slight  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  inheritance  provides  a simple 
explanation. 


The  Occurrence  of  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds 


5 


Inheritance  of  Black  and  Red  Color 

The  inheritance  of  red  and  black,  when  other  complications 
are  not  present,  is  very  simple.  If  a purebred  animal  of  a 
black  breed,  such  as  an  Angus,  is  bred  to  another  of  some  red 
breed,  such,  let  us  say,  as  a Red  Polled,  the  calves  obtained 
from  the  cross  will  be  black.  The  same  would  be  true  if  a 
Hereford  were  taken  as  the  red  breed,  but  in  this  case  the 
calves,  although  black,  would  have  white  faces.  Now  these 
cahes  inherit  red  from  their  red  jiarent  just  as  much  as  they 
do  black  from  the  lilack  parent,  but  when  the  two  come  to- 
gether only  the  black  shows.  It  is  said,  therefore,  that  black 
is  dominant  to  red,  since  it  dominates  it  in  the  appearance  of 
the  crossbred.  The  red,  on  the  contrary,  does  not  appear  in 
tlie  crossbred,  and  accordingly  red  is  said  to  be  recessive  to 
black. 

The  crossbred  animals  are  really  different  from  the  parental 
blacks,  in  that  they  carry  the  inheritance  of  red  though  they 
do  not  show  it.  For  if  they,  like  their  parents,  are  mated  to 
reds,  tlie  resulting  calves  will  no  longer  all  be  black,  but  there 
will  appear  red  ones  as  well.  In  fact,  the  numbers  of  black 
and  red  calves  produced  by  such  a mating  will,  in  the  long 
run,  be  equal. 

Appearance  Not  a Guide 

The  crossbi*eds  in  this  case  ^^mascjnerade  in  the  guise  of  one 
of  their  parents,”  and  it  is  a very  important  point  to  get  in 
mind  that  the  appearance  of  an  animal  does  not  necessarily 
serve  as  an  index  as  to  how  it  will  breed.  It  may  be  said  that 
the  purebred  blacks  are  constant  in  their  breeding,  since 
whether  bred  among  themselves  or  crossed  the  result  is  the 
same.  The  crossbreds,  on  the  other  hand,  are  inconstant  in 
tlieir  breeffing,  for  when  bi-ed  to  reds,  as  already  shown,  or 
when  bred  together,  both  black  and  red  calves  are  ])roduced. 

('rossbrei)S  Inconstant  in  Breedino 

There  are  cases  of  simple  inheritance  in  which  the  cross- 
bred is  different  from  either  parent — in  which  it  doiss  not 
masquerade  as  either  one — and  in  such  cases  it  is  always  rec- 
ognizable. This,  for  example,  is  the  case  when  a white  Short- 
horn is  crossed  with  a Galloway,  the  resulting  calf  being 


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of  Inheritance  of  black  and  red  In  cattl^. 


The  Occurrence  of  Red  Calves  ^in  Black  Breeds 


i 


neither  white  like  the  Shorthorn  nor  black  like  the  Galloway, 
but  a blue  roan,  which  is  due  to  an  intimate  mixture  of  black 
and  white  hairs,  and  is  thus,  in  a sense,  intermediate  between 
the  two  parents.  But  while  these  roans  do  not  masquerade 
as  one  of  the  parents — that  is,  neither  parental  color  is 
dominant — the  crossbred  roan  is  inconstant  in  its  breeding 
just  the  same  as  is  the  crossbred  black  in  the  cross  between 
black  and  red. 

When  a cross  between  black  and  red  gives  something  dif- 
ferent from  either  black  or  red,  such,  for  example,  as  brindle, 
it  is  due  to  the  presence  of  complicating  factors. 

That  the  crossbred  blacks  are  different  from  the  parental 
blacks  is  also  apparent  when  two  crossbreds  are  mated  to- 
gether. The  result  again  shows  that  they  are  ^‘inconstant-’ 
in  their  breeding,  for  both  black  and  red  offspring  are  obtained. 
Tlie  proportion  of  black  calves  is,  however,  larger  than  when 
crossbred  is  mated  to  red;  in  that  case  it  was  one  to  one, 
but  when  crossbreds  are  mated  together  the  expectation  is 
three  black  calves  to  one  that  is  red. 

A point  of  further  interest  and  of  much  importance  is  that 
while  these  three  blacks  again  are  alike  in  appearance,  tliey 
really  represent  the  two  types  with  respect  to  the  way  in  which 
they  will  breed.  On  the  average  one  of  the  three  will  breed 
with  respect  to  black  just  as  its  purebred  black  grandparent 
did,  that  is,  it  will  be  constant^  while  the  other  two  blacks 
will  behave  in  their  breeding  like  crossbreds — they  are  “mas- 
queraders” and  will  be  inconstant  in  breeding.  The  red  will 
breed  true  like  its  red  grandparent.  Since  red  is  recessive  it 
always'shows  when  black  is  not  present,  and  hence  no  reds  can 
be  masqueraders.  Accordingly,  red  mated  to  red  always  pro- 
duces red  offspring. 

There  is  one  other  combination  that  might  be  made,  namely, 
the  mating  of  a crossbred  back  to  the  black  parent.  Such  a 
mating  produces  only  black  offspring. 

There  are  only  three  types  of  animals  with  respect  to 
black  and  red;  first,  the  purebred  or  constant  black  type; 
second,  the  crossbred,  inconstant  or  masquerading  black;  and 
third,  the  purebred,  constant  red.  What  may  be  expected  from 
mating  these  in  the  different  possible  combinations  is  shown 
in  the  accompanying  diagram  (fig.  1).  An  important  point 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  313 


to  bear  in  mind  is  that  the  masquerading  or  inconstant  blacks 
behave  the  same  in  breeding,  no  matter  in  what  generation 
they  occur,  that  is,  they  behave  like  crossbreds  whether  they 
have  been  produced  directly  as  a cross  between  black  and  red 
parents,  or  whether  they  appear  in  later  generations,  and  that, 
furthermore,  the  constant  blacks  are  of  the  “purebred  type’’ 
and  behave  like  pnrebreds  with  respect  to  black,  even  though 
both  parents  may  have  been  crossbreds,  as  is  shown  by  the  in- 
dividual farthest  to  the  left  in  the  bottom  row  of  the  diagram. 

SUMMARY  OF  MATINGS  OF  BLACK  AND  RED  TYPES 

^ , , , fconstaiit  hlack  gives  all  Mack  offspring; 

Constant  Mack  . + +77  T • n 7.7  7 i • 

, ^inconstant  Mack  gives  all  Mack  offspring; 

mated  to....]  ^ . n 1 1 1 -v  • ^ 

[7'C(l  gives  all  black  offspring. 

[constant  hlack  gives  all  Mack  offspring; 

Inconstant  inconstant  Mack  gives  3 Mack  to  1 red  off- 

mated  to.  . . .]  spring; 

[I'cd  gives  1 Mack  to  1 red  offspring. 

[constant  Mack  gives  all  Mack  offspring; 

J inconstant  Mack  gives  1 Mack  to  1 red  off- 
1 spring; 

\j'ed  gives  all  red  offspring. 


Red  mated  to 


The  important  thing  to  be  observed  from  the  summary  is 
that  red  calves  appear  only  when  (1)  both  the  parents  are 
red,  (2)  one  parent  is  red  and  tlie  other,  though  black,  car- 
ries red  (is  a “masquerading”  black),  or  (3)  both  parents  are 
blacky  but  both  carry  red. 


True  Origin  of  Breeds  Not  Known 

It  is  of  interest  to  consider  the  origin  and  history  of  certain 
black  breeds  in  order  to  determine  why  some  individuals  may 
carry  the  iindesired  recessive  red.  In  the  first  place  it  must 
be  remembered  that  onr  definite  knowledge  of  the  history  of 
even  the  best  known  breeds  is  relatively  fragmentary  and  that 
tlie  exact  origin  of  no  breed  is  definitely  known,  tliat  is,  it  is 
not  known  just  what  elements  have  gone  into  its  making.  We 
commonly  look  for  each  component  of  a breed  to  have  been  used 


The  Occurrence  of  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds 


9 


in  considerable  numbers,  forgetting  that  some  character,  such, 
let  us  say,  as  a particular  color,  which  happens  to  be  fancied 
and  which  later  is  common  to  every  member  of  the  breed,  may 
possibly  have  been  introduced  by  the  crossing  in  of  a single 
animal  possessing  it. 

While  in  a few  cases  one  or  a few  individual  breeders 
liave  been  in  large  part  responsible  for  the  foundation  of 
particular  breeds,  as,  for  example,  is  the  case  with  the  Short- 
horns, more  commonly  the  breeds  have  been  a gradual  evolu- 
tion and  development  from  the  common  stock  of  the  locality 
in  which  tliey  originated.  Through  general  acceptance  of  some 
special  more  or  less  definite  type  in  a particular  region,  the 
animals  which  conformed  more  closely  to  that  type  have  been 
saved,  at  least  by  the  more  progressive  breeders,  until  a con 
siderable  proportion  of  the  cattle  of  that  locality  have  grad- 
ually come  to  approach  a unity  both  of  color  and  other  char- 
acters. In  tlie  earlier  writings  they  have  then  been  referred 
to  as  breeds  and  designated  by  the  name  of  the  locality,  as 
tlie  Zetland  breed,  the  North  Devon  breed,  and  so  on. 

In  time,  organizations  for  tlie  furtherance  of  the  breeds 
liave  usually  been  formed.  These  have  established  definite 
written  descriptions  or  standards  for  the  breeds  and  only 
animals  [lossessing  the  recpiirements  there  set  down  are  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  them.  This  is  naturally  followed  by  a 
system  of  registry,  so  that  all  the  stamlard  breeds  now  have 
their  herdbooks,  and  any  animal  to  have  standing  in  the 
breed  must  be  registered  in  these  books.  In  the  early  stages 
of  breed  formation,  any  individuals  meeting  the  breed  reipiire- 
ments  Jis  to  size,  form,  color  and  other  characters  have  com- 
monly been  entitled  to  registry,  but  after  a cei'tain  jieriod  the 
books  hnve  been  closed  to  miscidlaneous  entry  and  only  those 
individnnls  admitted  thnt  have  one  of  the  jiarents  registered, 
or  that  can  sliow  n c(*i'tain  p(‘rcentage  of  registered  animals 
in  their  ancestry,  oi*,  as  is  now  customary  in  all  the  belter 
established  breeds,  that  have  both  registered  dam  and  sire. 

Since*  th(i  olfs])ring  of  the  most  famous  animals  of  the 
bi-eed  are  in  greatest  demand  it  results  that  in  a few  decades 
a very  large  jn-oportion  of  a breed  are  their  descendants,  and 
with  the  interbreeding  that  takes  jilace,  this  means  that  there 
is  more  or  less  of  a blood  relationship  through  the  entire  breed. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  313 


Outcrossing  in  Early  Stages 

A breed,  then,,  is  at  best  a rather  artificial  group.  There 
is  no  breed  which  is  not  of  more  or  less  mixed  origin,  for  even 
where  they  have  not  arisen  simply  by  selection  from  the 
common  stock  of  the  country  there  have,  in  most  cases,  been 
definite  outcrossings  in  the  early  stages  to  bring  in  desirable 
traits  from  other  sources.  As  soon  as  the  breed  characteristics 
become  definitely  established  selection  rapidly  eliminates  many 
of  the  characters  that  are  not  desired,  but  for  a long  time 
some  of  these  continue  to  crop  out.  Selection  is  necessarily 
based  on  the  appearance  of  the  animals,  and  as  we  have  already 
seen  in  the  matter  of  color,  while  individuals  may  j)ossess  the 
desired  characters  they  may  nevertheless  be  merely  mas- 
(jueraders  and  actually  carry  the  other  traits  in  a recessive 
condition.  Thus,  while  an  accepted  definition  of  a breed  is 
‘^a  group  of  individuals,  homogeneous  in  blood,  and  possessing 
certain  well-defined  characteristics  which  are  transmitted  by 
inlieritance,^’  this  definition  must  be  taken  with  some  allow- 
ance, since  it  is  safe  to  say  that  there  is  no  breed  of  animals 
which  is  strictly  “homogeneous  in  blood.^’ 

It  is  easy  to  see  how,  if  red  animals  have  at  any  time  en- 
tered into  the  composition  of  a black  breed,  even  though  there 
may  since  have  been  the  most  rigid  selection,  the  red  should 
still  occasion  all}^  crop  out.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
breeder,  basing  his  selection  merely  on  the  color  of  the  in- 
dividual, may  save  blacks  that  are  carrying  red  as  well  as 
those  which  are  “pure”  for  black,  and  as  we  have  seen,  when- 
ever two  such  “inconstant”  blacks  are  mated,  the  chances  are 
one  in  four  that  a red  calf  will  result.  As  selection  continues, 
however,  none  of  these  red  calves  being  admitted  to  the  breed, 
the  number  of  black  animals  which  carry  red  will  gradually 
decrease,  and  there  will  be  a corresponding  infrequency  in  the 
appearance  of  red  offspring.  How  well  the  facts  bear  out  the 
foregoing  statements  may  be  seen  by  examining  the  history 
of  certain  breeds. 


The  Aberdeen-Angus 

It  was  long  a generally  accepted  theory  that  “jthe  wild 
white  cattle  of  England,”  now  maintained  in  a few  private 


The  Occurrence  op  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds  11 


parks,  represent  the  primitive  wild  cattle  of  the  countr}^  and 
are  the  stock  from  Avhich  the  domesticated  breeds  of  Great 
Britain  have  originated.  There  have,  however,  been  dissenters 
from  this  opinion  and  their  views  have  been  summarized  by 
Mdlson,^  who  holds  that  the  ordinary  domesticated  cattle  are 
descended  from  an  original  wild  form,  the  bones  of  which  are 
occasionally  dug  np  in  Great  Britain  and  continental  Europe, 
known  to  science  as  Bos  lo7igifrons. 

He  believes  this  prehistoric  ancestor  to  have  been  black  in 
color,  though  some  dark  grayish  or  brownish  color  would  seem 
more  probable  for  the  animal  in  its  original  wild  state.  At 
any  rate  it  appears  that  the  domesticated  cattle  of  Scotland, 
\Vales  and  Cornwall  were  largely  black  till  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  but  with  a sprinkling  of  other  colors,  such 
as  red,  white,  brindle  and  dun,  and  Wilson  assumes  that  the 
prevailing  color  of  the  cattle  in  all  Great  Britain,  previous 
to  the  coming  of  the  Romans  at  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era,  was  black.  These  he  speaks  of  as  the  Celtic 
cattle. 

The  white  cattle,  according  to  Wilson,  were  brought  to 
England  by  the  Roman  invaders,  and  later  iniiiortant  additions 
to  the  stock  in  Great  Britain  were  made  by  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
who  brought  their  red  cattle  principally  to  the  eastern  coun- 
try, whence  they  spread  over  practically  all  of  England,  and 
the  Norse  invaders,  who  brought  dnn-colored  cattle  to  Scot- 
land. Later,  extensive  importations  of  red-and-white  Dutch 
cattle  were  made  into  the  eastern  countries,  and  these  last 
are  believed  to  have  entered  extensively  into  the  composition 
of  the  Shortborn  breed  as  it  exists  today.  All  the  ])resent- 
<lay  bi*e(;ds,  in  fact,  are  the  result  of  the  combining  of  these 
early  stocks,  and  later  selection  foi*  vai-ions  tyj)es.  It  is  not 
at  ,‘ill  ])robable,  furthermore,  that  tlie  cattle  brought  in  at 
1 liese  dillVnent  times  were,  by  any  means,  so  nnifoi-m  in  color  as 
is  suggested,  since  W(i  hav(‘  no  basis  for  iKdiming  that  breeding 
\v;is  anytliing  but  largxdy  liapliazai-d  in  those  days,  and  while 
a j)ievailing  fancy  might  i-(*snlt;  in  a |)]*(‘dominating  color 
among  the  cattle  of  a particular  p(‘Oj)h‘,  it.  is  more  than  likely 
that  otli(‘r  colors  I'cmiaiiKMl  common  as  w(dl,  and  all  sorts 
would  be  takmi  by  tli(i  colonists  wIkmi  tli(‘y  <‘stablish(Ml  a new 
home. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  313 


It  is  only  in  very  recent  times  that  breed  restrictions  have 
become  so  rigid  as  to  make  all  the  cattle  of  a breed  conform 
to  a single  color. 

There  have  also  doubtless  been  other  minor* importations 
into  Great  Britain  from  time  to  time,  and  the  influence  of 
these  with  respect  to  any  particular  color  or  other  character 
tliey  may  have  brought  in  cannot  be  accurately  estimatefl. 
It  will  be  obvious,  therefore,  that  an  attempt  to  trace  the 
exact  origin  of  any  breed  is  bound  to  be  largely  guesswork. 
The  major  components  of  any  breed  may  usually  be  known, 
however,  since,  as  previously  stated,  it  is  usually  made  up  in 
a very  large  part  from  the  type  most  prevalent  in  the  locality 
in  which  it  originates. 

Like  practically  all  present-day  breeds,  the  Aberdeen-Angus 
is  the  result  of  a mixture  from  several  sources.  Wilson  be- 
lieves the  foundation  to  have  been  the  black  inland  cattle  of 
Scotland  crossed  with  the  dun  hornless  cattle  of  the  coastal 
provinces.  Later,  other  colors  came  in  from  the  south,  partic- 
ularly red,  brindle,  white  and  roan  from  Longhorn  and  Short- 
liorn  crosses.  At  the  present  time  most  of  these  colors  have 
been  eliminated,  but  still,  as  Wilson  says,^  ^^an  occasional 
flecked  or  red  calf  appears  to  the  surprise  and  consternation 
of  its  owner,  and  to  the  production  of  thought  and  speculation 
and  wild  statements.” 

Elsewhere  he  writes : ‘‘Twenty  or  thirty  years  ago  such 

j)henomena  were  more  common  tliaii  now.  At  that  time  a calf 
with  a brown  stripe  down  the  back  and  a tan  muzzle,  another 
with  briiulle  markings,  and  another  with  short  horns  was  not  a 
iei'lie — was  not  a marvel.  Sixty  or  seventy  years  ago  these 
])lienomeiia  were  all  common,  and  horned  and  hornless  cattle, 
many  of  the  former  the  ancestors  of  the  present-day  hornless 
cattle,  competed  together  for  ]>rizes  even  at  the  shows  of  the 
Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland.  A century 
ago  the  horned  and  hornless  grew  up  side  by  side  not  only  on 
neighboring  farms,  but  in  the  same  fields,  claiming  freipiently 
to  be  children  of  the  same  ]>a rents. Tt  is  also  said  that  colors 
and  markings  were  found  at  that  time  which  do  not  croj)  out 
at  all  in  the  breed  today. 

These-  facts  agree  entirely  with  what  would  be  exjiected 


The  Occurrence  of  Ked  Calves  in  Black  Breeds  18 


from  the  inheritance  of  red  and  black.  Red  being  recessive 
to  black  it  can  be  carried  by  black  individuals  without  being- 
evident;  in  other  words,  there  are  likely  to  be  many  black 
‘‘masqueraders’’  whose  presence  in  a herd  may  be  unsuspected 
until  two  of  them  happen  to  be  bred  together,  when  red  off- 
spring may  result;  but  even  then  the  chances  of  a red  calf 
being  dropped  are  only  one  in  four.  Kenneth  McGregor, 
formerly  of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College,  says  that  red  Aber- 
deen-Angus  calves  which  occurred  in  the  herd  there  were  of 
a very  dark  shade,  more  the  color  of  Red  Polled  than  of  Short- 
horn red. 

The  consensus  of  opinion  is  that  these  red  calves  if  bred 
together  will  breed  true,  that  is,  they  will  throw  nothing  but 
red  offspring,  and  this  also  agrees  with  expectation.  There 
have,  indeed,  been  herds  of  entirely  red  Aberdeen- Angus  cattle 
formed  in  this  way.  It  is  stated  that  there  was  formerly  one 
such  owned  by  the  Honorable  Mr.  Cochrane  of  Quebec,  Canada, 
which,  however,  has  since  passed  out  of  existence.  At  last 
accounts  there  was  at  least  one  such  herd  in  Scotland,  owned 
by  W.  K.  McDonald  of  Arbroath,  stock  from  which  has  been 
sold  to  go  to  Argentine. 

There  was  no  general  importation  of  Aberdeen-Angus’  cattle 
into  America  prior  to  1873.  Within  a few  years  after  that 
date,  however,  the  breed  had  attained  great  popularity  and 
the  American  Aberdeen-Angus  Breeders’  Association  was  or- 
ganized in  1883.  Since  that  time  29  volumes  of  the  American 
herd  book  liave  been  issued,  including  274,500  entries.  A study 
of  these  records  affords  material  of  considerable  interest  as 
bearing  on  tlie  way  in  wliich  a breed  gradually  becomes  more 
uniform  through  the  elimination  of  certain  types  in  breeding. 
Color  was  not  recorded  in  the  first  and  second  volumes  of  the 
American  herdbook,  and  a large  number  of  tlie  animals  reg- 
istered in  those  two  volumes  are  indeed  Scotch  foundation 
stock  which  was  never  in  this  country.  Beginning  with  Volume 
mention  is  made  of  all  off-color  individuals  registered,  “males 
red  in  color,  or  with  a noticeable  amount  of  i)ure  white  above 
the  underline,  or  on  h‘g  or  legs,  or  with  scurs,”  not  being 
(eligible  to  enti'y  for  bre(‘ding  j)nij)Oses.  Such  f(‘lnal(^s  conbl, 
however,  be  used  to  bi*eed  from  until  recently,  a new  rnle 


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Not  including  Vols.  1 and  2. 


The  Occurrence  of  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds  15 


having  gone  into  effect  with  the  beginning  of  Volume  28  that 
no  off-color  individuals  as  defined  above,  either  male  or  female, 
shall  be  eligible  to  registry  for  breeding  purposes,  wliich  prac- 
tically means  tliat  none  are  registered  at  all  after  that  time. 

Table  I shows  the  number  of  off-colored  animals  (not  im 
eluding  those  involving  distribution  of  white  markings,  witli 
which  we  are  not  concerned)  registered  in  each  of  the  first 
27  volumes  of  the  American  herdbook,  and  the  proportion  of 
reds  to  other  colors  in  each  volume,  this  being  indicated  in 
the  last  column  of  the  table  as  number  of  red  individuals  to 
each  1,000  animals  registered.  Of  the  22  reds  registered  in 
Volume  3,  9 were  males  and  13  females.  No  red  males  are 
registered  in  later  volumes. 

The  graph  shown  in  figure  2 is  constructed  from  the  figures 
in  the  last  column  of  Table  I and  shows  strikingly  the  fact  that 
there  was  a rapid  falling  off  in  the  number  of  red  Aberdeen-An- 
gus  cattle  registered  in  Volumes  3 to  7.  Following  that  the  num- 
bers increased  somewhat,  but  in  general  there  has  been  a slow, 
steady  decrease  since  the  first  rapid  fall  in  the  early  years. 


Fig.  3.  An  Aberdeen-Angus  pedigree  chart,  which  shows  how  close  breeding  brings  out  the  latent  red. 


The  Occurrence  of  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds  17 


as  evidenced  by  the  curved  line  draAvn  in  to  indicate  the  gen- 
eral trend  of  the  broken  line.  The  gradual  decrease  in  number 
of  red  animals  registered  depends  on  several  factors.  In  the 
first  place,  there  is  no  donbt  that  tliey  have  become  increas- 
ingly nnpopnlar,  so  tliat  from  being  tolerated  in  the  early 
days  of  the  breed,  they  have  come  to  be  excluded  fi'om  registra- 
tion entirehL  They  are,  moreover,  looked  on  with  suspicion 
by  man}^,  as  indicating  possible  impurity  of  breeding,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  this  feeling  tends  to  sj)read  as  tlie  oc- 
currence of  red  calves  becomes  less  frequent.  In  the  second 
])lace  it  must  be  recalled  that  the  number  of  red  calves  reg- 
istered by  no  means  represents  all  of  that  color  that  are 
dropped  by  purebred  dams.  No  red  males  are  recorded  after 
Volume  3,  so  that  the  actual  number  of  red  calves  born  would 
doubtless  be  at  least  double  the  numbers  recorded.  Furtlier- 
more,  while  some  breeders  made  a practice  of  registering  all 
their  off-color  calves  (all  the  calves  registered  by  one  breeder 
in  one  volume  were  red),  others  doubtless  did  not  register  them 
at  all. 

In  spite  of  tliese  complications  and  imperfections  in  the 
(lata,  Jiowever,  the  curve  in  figure  2 ])robal)ly  does  re})resent  to  a 
considerable  extent  tlie  actual  facts  as  regards  tlie  occurrence 
of  red  calves  in  tlie  Aberdeen-Aiigus  breed  in  tliis  country. 
•Ami  althougli  even  the  red  cows  can  no  longer  be  registered 
for  breeding  purposes,  red  calves  may  be  exjiected  to  appear 
now  and  then  for  many  years,  but  in  slowly  dejcreasiug  num- 
bers, for  there  w'ill  still  be  many  ‘bnasqueraders”  among  the 
blacks,  and  when  two  of  them  are  mated  by  chance,  tlm  proba- 
bilities are  one  in  four  that  the  calf  will  be  red. 

This  emphasizes  again  the  fact  that  both  parents  of  a 
red  calf  are  eipmlly  responsible  for  the  departure  from  the 
desired  color — they  must  both  be  “mas<]ueraders.”  Further- 
more, from  each  parent  there  must  be  an  unbroken  line  of  in- 
dividuals red  or  ^‘carrying  red,”  that  is,  ^bnasipuiraders,”  back 
to  the  remote  red  animals  included  in  the  ancestry  of  the  breed. 
Some  of  these  facts  are  illustrated  strikingly  in  the  sanqile 
pedigree  chart  in  figure  3.  In  this  chart  the  squares  represent 
males  and  the  circles  females.  Horizontal  connecting  lines  in- 
dicate matings,  while  the  vertical  lines  lead  to  the  olfsj)ring  of 


18 


Wisconsin  I5ulletin  313 


these  matings.  The  black  squares  and  circles  represent  animals 
known  to  be  black;  red  squares  and  circles  indicate  red  individ- 
uals; the  plain  unshaded  figures  indicate  no  record  as  to  color. 
These  are  animals  either  from  the  Scotch  herdbooks  or  the 
first  two  volumes  of  the  American  books,  color  not  being 
recorded  in  either  case.  INIost  of  them,  doubtless,  were  black, 
but  there  is  no  assurance  that  all  were.  The  number  below 
each  individual  is  its  number  in  the  American  herdbook. 

There  are  a number  of  points  of  interest  in  this  pedigree. 
In  the  first  place,  there  is  a considerable  amount  of  inbreed- 
ing. Note,  for  instance  that  4,405  and  3,123  trace  back  to  a 
brother  and  sister  (820  and  3,124),  the  parents  of  these 
(824  and  821)  being  resjiectively  great-grandparents  of  4,405 
and  grandparents  of  3,123.  These  two  animals,  4,405  and  3,123, 
were  both  black  ‘buasqneraders,”  for  they  produced  twins,  one 
of  which  (7,014)  Avas  black  and  the  other  (10,583)  red.  The 
great  amount  of  inbreeding  beyond  this  point  is  obvious  and 
the  large  number  of  red  calves  produced  is  correspondingly 
conspicuous.  These  same  individuals  doubtless  produced  many 
black  calves  from  the  same  or  other  matings,  but  these  are  not 
indicated  in  the  chart. 

The  full  red  lines  mark  the  descent  of  the  recessive  ^b’ed” 
trait  where  it  can  be  indicated  Avith  certainty,  and  similarly 
the  heavy  outlines  on  the  uncolored  squares  and  circles  indi- 
cate known  ‘bnasqueraders.”  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  at 
least  one  of  hnimals  824  and  821,  at  the  top  of  the  chart, 
carried  the  ‘b^ed”  inheritance,  but  the  records  are  lacking  to 
prove  it.  If  that  were  the  case  the  full  red  lines  would  con- 
tinue up  from  both  4,405  and  3,123  till  they  met  at  that 
point.  This  probability  is  indicated  in  the  chart  b^^  the  broken 
red  lines.  In  the  same  way  0,442  or  0,138  (or  possibly  both) 
must  either  liaA^e  been  red  in  color  or  have  carried  red  as  a 
recessive  in  order  to  account  for  the  fact  that  0,441  (at  the 
right  of  the  chart)  AAms  a “masijuerader.”  This  brings  out 
the  interesting  point  that  it  would  only  be  necessary  for  tAvo 
of  the  original  animals,  824  or  821  and  0,442  or  0,138,  to  Inne 
carried  the  red  trait  in  order  to  account  for  all  seven  of  the 
red  individuals  that  ajijiear  in  the  pedigree. 

It  is  worth  while  to  observe  more  closely  the  matings 


The  Occurrence  of  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds 


19 


which  produced  red  calves.  The  three  red  individuals,  11,080, 
11,079  and  11,078,  were  produced  respectively  by  matings  of 
the  red  cow  10,583,  her  black  twin  7,011,  and  their  mother 
4,405,  to  the  black  ‘bnasquerader”  bull  6,441.  The  black 
twin  7,014  to  her  black  half-brother  (5,297)  produced  red 
10,584,  while  red  10,585  came  from  a mating  of  this  same  bull 
back  to  the  mother,  and  mated  to  his  own  full  sister  (7,015) 
he  produced  red  10,588.  But  while  the  close  breeding  in  this 
case  has  tended  to  bring  out  the  red  color,  it  must  be  kept 
clearly  in  mind  that  it  had  nothing  to  do  with  producing  the 
tendency  to  it  in  the  stock.  This  came  in,  doubtless,  from  red 
foundation  stock  in  the  infancy  of  the  breed,  as  has  already 
l)een  pointed  out.  Inbreeding  simply  makes  more  i^robable 
matings  of  individuals  both  of  which  carry  the  trait,  and  it 
is  only  from  such  matings  that  it  can  appear.  The  probability 
of  its  appearance  is  equally  as  great  if  two  entirely  unrelated 
individuals  carrying  the  inheritance  of  red  chance  to  be  paired. 

One  more  point  should  be  emphasized,  namel^q  that  the 
red  individuals  appearing  in  such  stock  as  that  indicated  in 
tlie  cl) art  are  just  as  truly  “purebred”  as  are  their  black  rela- 
tives, and  there  is  no  reason  why,  in  all  respects  save  color, 
they  sliould  not  be  fully  as  valuable.  The  fact  that  they  are 
discarded  wliile  the  blacks  are  retained  is  simply  due  to  the 
turn  of  fortune  that  black  ratlier  tlian  red  became  the  estab- 
lished fashion  for  the  Aberdeen-Angus  breed.  Had  red  been 
tlie  cliosen  color,  tliere  would  never  have  been  any  trouble  with 
tlie  ajipearance  of  blacks  as  olf-color  individuals,  since  red  to 
red  breeds  true. 

The  Galloway 

Tlie  history  of  the  (ialloway  breed  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  Aberdeen-Angus,  the  I'emote  ancestry  being  in  many 
i-espects  doubtless  the  same.  >Vhile  the  jirevailing  breed  coloi* 
is  black,  the  result  of  early  mixture  has  also  been  aiijiai'imt  in 
Galloways,  dark  lirindle,  brown,  red,  dun  and  drab  being  men- 
tioned in  the  literature.  It  is  stated  that  “even  toda}^  dun  and 
drab  are  recognized  colors  of  the  bi'eed” — though  not  in  Amer- 
ica. As  in  the  Aberdeen-Angus,  we  ai*e  at  present  interested 
only  in  the  inheritance  of  the  red,' which  is  said  in  Galloways 
to  be  of  a yellowish,  faded  color,  rather  than  the  dark  red  of 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  313 


the  Aberdeen-Angus.  We  have  no  data  on  the  occurrence  of 
red  in  Galloways,  but  Lloyd- Jones  and  Evvard^  make  the  state- 
ment that,  ‘^at  the  present  time,  by  far  the  great  majority  of 
all  Galloway  cattle  are  pure  for  the  factor  which  x>roduces 
black,  but  this  is  not  always  so;  animals  of  this  breed  sliow 
that  they  still  retain  the  red-producing  ability  because  from 
time  to  time,  when  tlie  occasional  heterozygous*  blacks  are 
coujiled,  a red  calf  may  be  produced.’’  The  general  situation  as 
to  the  production  of  reds  is  probably  essentially  the  same, 
therefore,  in  the  Galloway  that  it  is  in  the  Aberileen -Angus. 
We  are  unable  to  state  wliether  or  not  reds  occur  more  fre- 
quently in  one  breed  than  the  other. 

The  Holstein-Friesian 

Insofar  as  the  inheritance  of  red  is  concerned  the  condition 
in  the  Holstein-Friesian  is  jDractically  the  same  as  in  the 
Aberdeen-Angus.  The  only  essential  difference  in  the  two 
breeds,  in  the  matter  of  color,  is  that  there  isli  greater  amount 
of  white  spotting  on  the  Holstein-Friesian,  but  since  the  in- 
heritance of  white  sjiotting  is  entirely  indejiendent  of  that  of 
black  and  red,  it  need  not  be  taken  into  consideration.  A 
red-and-white  Holstein-Friesian  calf,  therefore,  bears  the  same 
relation  to  the  breed  that  a red  calf  does  to  the  Aberdeen- 
Angus. 

The  early  history  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  like  that 
of  other  breeds,  is  largely  a matter  of  conjecture,  and  many 
of  the  statements  in  the  literature  cannot  be  accepted  at  their 
face  value.  For  example,  it  has  been  assumed  by  some  that 
the  present  black-and-white  Color  originated  shortly  before 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  by  the  crossing  of  black 
cattle  brought  by  the  Batavians,  who  settled  in  the  region 
between  the  Rhine  and  the  Meuse,  and  ‘^pure  white”  cattle  of 
the  Friesians.  Not  only  is  it  improbable  in  the  first  place  that 
these  early  tribes  possessed  cattle  which  approximated  definite 
breeds,  uniform  in  color  and  markings,  but  it  is  exceedingly 
improbable  from  a genetical  viewpoint  that  a pied  pattern 
like  that  of  the  Dutch  cattle  should  arise  from  the  crossing 

* The  technical  scientific  term  for  what  are  known  as  “inconstant  breeders,” 
or  “masqueraders.” 


The  Occurrence  op  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds  21 


of  black  and  white  stock.  The  statement  of  Hengeveld,  so  often 
quoted,  to  the  effect  that  ^‘the  genealogy  of  Netherland  cattle 
is  pure  and  unadulterated,  and  is  at  least  2,000  years  old” 
can  not  be  accepted  at  its  face  value.  It  is  true  tliat  tlie 
region  of  the  Netherlands  has  apparently  jiossessed  cattle  of 
special  value  since  early  Christian  times,  or  possibly  before, 
but  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  there  have  not  been 
intermixtures  with  it;  in  fact,  there  is  positive  evidence  to  the 
contrary.  In  the  matter  of  color  alone  it  seems  fairly  certain 
that  perhai)s  the  most  general  color  of  the  cattle  in  the  Nether- 
lands and  the  surrounding  provinces,  until  within  a century  oi* 
two,  was  red  or  fawn  (or  some  shade  of  dun),  and  that  black- 
and-white  piebald  as  a predominating  color  is  of  comiiaratively 
recent  introduction.  Red-and-white  Breeds  still  occur  in 
Holland  and  the  West  German  provinces,  such  as  East  Fries- 
land and  Oldenburg. 

The  fullest  and  most  critical  discussion  of  the  color  of  the 
Netherland  cattle  is  that  of  Bakker,®  published  in  1909.  He 
remarks  that  recent  authors  assume  Netherland  cattle  to  have 
been  black-and-white  since  earliest  times,  but  says  there  is  no 
basis  whatever  for  such  an  opinion.  On  the  contrary,  he  be- 
lieves that  there  were  no  black-and-white  cattle  in  Holland 
l)revions  to  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  This 
conclusion  is  based  very  largely  on  the  evidence  affoi'ded  by 
early  Dutch  paintings  in  which  cattle  are  depicted.  Bakker 
examined  nearly  4,000  paintings  in  the  Tmjierial  Museum  at 
Amsterdam  and  found  that  while  manj^  of  them  contained 
cattle,  no  black-and-white  cattle  appeared  prior  to  the  second 
half  of  the  eighteenth  centurjL* 

In  the  accompanying  table  (Table  II)  are  given  the  per- 
centages of  different  colors  in  each  century  from  1500  until 
about  1775.  After  that  period  black-and-whites  are  numerous 
while  recent  artists  use  black-and-white  cattle  exclusively  to 
adorn  their  meadow  scenes. 


* The  senior  author  of  this  bulletin,  at  that  time  unaware  of  Uakker’s  work, 
came  to  a similar  conclusion  from  a casual  examination  of  the  paintings  in  the 
Old  Picture  Oallery  in  the  Manritshuis  at  the  Hague  in  1911.  Storer  also,  in 
his  work  on  “The  Wild  White  Cattle  of  Ureat  Britain”  [1879],  states  that  the 
famous  paintings  show  the  Dutch  cow  of  200  or  300  years  ago  to  be  quite 
different  from  the  one  of  today ; black  was  then  rare,  different  shades  of  red 
being  most  common,  but  mouse-colored  and  white  with  red  ears  being  frequent. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  313 


Table  II. — Colors  of  cattle  in  old  Dutch  pictures 
(From  Bakker) 


l‘eriod 

Number 
of  cattle 

Red 

Red-and-white 

Dun 

“Blaar- 

koppen”* 

“Wit- 

koppen”* 

1500-1600 

23 

34.7% 

4.3% 

56.5% 

56.5% 

8.7% 

1600-1700 

154 

50.0% 

5.8% 

35.7% 

35.0% 

1.3% 

Approx. 
1700  1775 

9 

22.2% 

1 

55.5% 

11.1% 

66.6% 

0 

Several  iuterestiiig  points  come  out  from  a study  of  these 
pictures.  We  note,  for  examxile,  that  if  tliej^  may  be  relied 
upon  as  giving  a fair  indication  of  the  predominating  colors 
of  the  cattle  at  the  time  they  were  painted,  39  per  cent  of  the 
Holland  cattle  in  the  sixteenth  century  were  red  or  red-and- 
white,  while  56.5  per  cent  are  represented  as  dim,t  probably 
referring  to  some  shade  of  grayish  brown,  perhaps  somewhat 
like  the  color  of  many  Jersey  cattle.  Bakker  states  that  in 
some  cases  the  color  is  somewhat  uncertain  in  the  paintings, 
so  that  there  is  considerable  variation  of  color  in  animals 
classed  in  the  table  as  dim.  In  the  seventeenth  century  the 
proportions  are  not  markedly  different,  but  in  the  eighteenth 
century  there  is  a noticeable  increase  in  the  proportion  that 
are  spotted  with  white.  In  all  the  pictures  painted  after  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  in  which  cattle  are  in- 
cluded, at  least  one  or  more  are  black-and-white  spotted. 

These  facts  have  led  Bakker  to  conclude  that  the  Nether- 
land  cattle  are  descended  from  the  old  red  native  breed  which 
constituted  the  original  cattle  of  all  central  Europe;  that 
they  were,  therefore,  not  originally  black-and-white,  but  that 
this  color  dates  from  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century ; 
and  that  it  was  introduced  into  Holland  bj^  importations  of 
Jutland  cattle  from  Denmark.  There  is,  furthermore,  his- 
torical evidence  of  such  importations  to  support  this  view. 
The  white  face  marking  has,  however,  been  common  in  the 
Netherland  cattle  from  earliest  times,  and  is  characteristic  of 
one  of  the  present  breeds  in  Holland. 

Tlie  black-and-white  color  must  have  found  great  favor  in 
Holland,  for  after  its  aiipearance  it  seems  to  have  become  the 

* “Blaarkop”  animals  are  white-faced,  but  with  a spot  of  pigment  encircling 
the  eye;  “witkop”  is  literally  white  iTeaded,  the  whole  face,  or  practically  the 
whole  head,  being  white,  as  in  Hereford  cattle.  For  convenience  we  shall  refer 
to  the  two  classes  together  as  “white-faced.”  The  pigment  accompanying  these 
conditions  may  be  either  black  or  red. 

t German  Fahl,  literally  fallow,  or  faded. 


The  Occurrence  op  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds  23 


predominating  one  in  a relatively  short  time.  Furthermore, 
the  fame  of  the  Netlierland  cattle,  especially  those  of  Fries- 
land, rapidly  extended  them  to  neighboring  countries,  and 
more  recently  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Nevertheless,  as  late 
as  1865,  John  H.  Klippart,  who  made  a tour  of  Europe  for 
the  Ohio  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  reported  regarding  tlie 
color  of  these  cattle  at  the  International  Fair  at  S tell  in, 
Germaii}’^,  that  “the  most  in  popular  favor  are  the  wliite,  witli 
red,  grey,  blue-grey,  or  black  spots,”'’  sliowiug  that  even  then 
the  lireed  was  far  from  uniform. 

l‘rofessor  Silliman,  in  his  “Journal  of  Travels”  in  Hol- 
land, published  in  1812,  says : “Innumerable  multitudes  of 

very  fine  cattle  were  grazing  ujion  tlie  meadows;  many  of 
them  were  of  a pure  milk-white  color;  otliei*?,  nearly  or  quite 
black;  but  by  far  the  greater  number  were  marked  by  botli 
these  colors,  intermixed  in  a very  beautiful  manner;  and  we 
found  this  fact  to  be  general ; for  wherever  we  went  in  Hol- 
land, the  cattle  were  black  or  white,  or  striped  and  spotted 
with  these  colors.”’  Professor  George  H.  Cook  is  quoted®  as 
writing  in  1871  that  cattle  are  to  be  seen  everywhere  at 
pasture  in  Holland  and  that  “their  decided  colors  of  black 
and  white  make  them  conspicuous  objects.”  No  mention  is 
made  of  other  colors.  These  statements  confirm  the  conclusion 
that  black-and-white  came  into  predominance  very  rapidly 
after  its  introduction,  a thing  which  could  very  naturally 
happen,  since  black  is  dominant  to  red. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  three  distinct  breeds  of 
cattle  in  Holland:  (1)  the  black-and-Avhite  Friesian-Dutch,  a 

strictly  dairy  breed;  (2)  the  Avhite-faced  black  Groningen 
cattle,  of  a relatively  heavy  beef  type;  and  (3)  the  Yssel  breed, 
red-and-white  in  color  and  intermediate  in  t}q)e  between  the 
other  two.  Importation  of  other  breeds  is  not  allowed.  It  is  in- 
teresting to  note  the  way  in  wliich  these  three  breeds  have  se- 
lected among  the  available  coloi*  and  ])attern  chai'acters.  The 
Fi'iesian-Dutch  has  the  black  ])iebald  ])attern  siqiposed  to  have 
come  in  from  the  Jutland  breed;  the  Groningen  has  the  im- 
ported black  coloi',  but  retains  the  old  white-face  character* 

* WMIe,  as  previously  slated,  llie  liead  may  he  eiitii-ely  while  or  lliere  may 
I)e  a pigmented  spot  surrounding  tlie  eye,  tlie  latter  is  now  mueh  more  commoii 
dlofmann,  “Das  Ilolliinder  Rind,”  ItiOo,  p.  r>0).  'I'liis  breed  also  has  white  on 
the  breast,  belly,  udder,  the  lower  parts  of  the  legs  and  tail  switch. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  313 


of  so  many  early  Holland  cattle;  while  the  Yssel  (sometimes 
called  ‘‘OberijsseF’  or  “Mass-Rhein-Yssel”  breed)  is  red-and- 
white  spotted,  the  red  color  presumably  being  directly  de- 
scended from  the  old  native  stock.  At  the  present  day  one 
sees  practically  nothing  but  black-and-white  and  red-and-white 
cattle  in  journeying  through  Holland;  the  other  colors  appear 
very  largely  to  have  been  eliminated.  • 

It  is  generally  recognized  in  Holland  that  red-and-white 
calves  are  occasionally  thrown  in  both  the  black-and-white 
breeds  mentioned,  namely,  the  Friesian-Dutch  and  the  Gron- 
ingen. In  the  early  herdbooks  no  distinction  was  made  be- 
tween them,  and  they  are  still  registered  in  the  Friesian  cattle 
herdbook.  We  have  not  had  copies  of  the  Friesian  and  Nether- 
land  herdbooks  available  in  order  to  make  a study  of  the  rela- 
tive proportions  of  red-and-white  animals  entered  in  succeed- 
ing years,  as  was  done  in  the  case  of  the  Aberdeen-Angus,  but 
it  is  the  generally  accepted  opinion  that  their  number  is  grow- 
ing continually  smaller. 

Table  III. — Black-and-white  and  red-and-white  cattle  in 
Friesian  herdbooks 


Black- 

and-white 

Red- 

and-white 

Per  cent 
Red- 

and-white 

Black- 

and-white 

Red- 

and-white 

Per  cent 
Red- 

and-white 

1S72  C HpngpvplfU  ^ 

10.0 

1905,  cows  (Hofmann)i®  

10,486 

173 

1.6 

bulls  (Hofmann)  

2,889 

40 

1.4 

total  (Hofmann)  

13,375 

213 

1.6 

1908,  herdbook,  cows  (Bakker)”  

12,235 

199 

1.6 

herdbook,  bulls  (Bakker)  

3,703 

61 

1.6 

supplementary  book,  cows  (Bakker).... 

16,035 

694 

4.1 

total  (Bakker)  

31,973 

954 

2.9 

1913,  breeding  animals  (Friesian  Soc.  Agr.)^-. 

55,677 

1,520 

2.65 

1915,  bulls  (Hoxie)J3  

‘7',316 

’ "ioD 

' 'l.5 

1 

In  Table  III  are  given  statistics  from  various  sources 
showing  tlie  number  of  black-and-white  and  red-and-wliite 
cattle  registered  in  the  Friesian  herdbook  at  various  dates. 
These  figures  show  a great  decrease  in  the  proportion  of  red- 
and-wbite  animals  registered  from  1872  to  1905.  Since  that 
time  tlie  relative  nundiers  have  remained  mucli  tlie  same.  It 
is  surprising  that  the  ])ro|)ortion  of  red-and-white  should  be 
less  in  1905  than  in  1908  and  1913,  unless  tlie  figures  include 


The  Occurrence  op  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds  25 


somewhat  different  records  and  are  not  comparable.  The 
figures  are,  it  should  be  remarked,  the  final  ones  in  each  case, 
the  later  ones  including  all  registries  to  that  time. 

To  the  traveler  through  Holland  in  recent  years  it  is 
noticeable  that  one  or  more  red-and- white  cows  may  be  seen 
in  nearly  every  herd  grazing  in  the  pastures.  We  estimated 
these  to  be  in  about  the  proportion  of  one  in  ten  in  1911.* 
It  must  be  recalled  that  the  cattle  seen  in  this  way,  however, 
are  by  no  means  all  registered,!  so  that  this  number  cannot 
be  compared  directly  with  those  given  above.  Rough  counts 
were  also  made  of  the  colors  of  the  animals  at  the  cattle  market 
in  Been  warden,  in  the  province  of  Friesland,  on  June  9,  1911, 
with  the  results  shown  in  Table  IV.  Here  again  it  will  be 
noted  that,  except  for  the  bulls,  the  proportion  of  red-and- 


Table  IV. — Colors  of  cattle  at  market  in  Leeuwarden,  June  9,  1911 
(Approximate  counts) 


Black- 

and-white 

Red- 

and-white 

Per  cent 
red- 

and-white 

Young  calves  

45 

5 

10.0 

Older  calves  

59 

6 

9.2 

Cows  

65 

5 

7.1 

Bulls  

58 

1 

1.7 

Total  

227 

17 

7.0 

whites  is  not  much  below  10  per  cent.  This  shows  that  the 
course  of  the  breeding  in  the  registered  herds  has  been  affect- 
ing the  cattle  of  tlie  jirovince  in  general,  so  that  the  proportion 
of  red-and-wliites  in  lierds  at  large  is  now  scarcely  as  great 
as  it  was  repoi-t(*d  to  be  by  Hengeveld  among  the  registered 
animals  in  1871.  The  very  low  proportion  among  the  bulls 
is  to  be  expected,  for  while  heifer  calves  would  be  saved  foi' 
their  intrinsic  value  as  milk  ])i*oducers  regardless  of  color, 
few  breeders  would  save  a red-and-wliite  bull  in  the  face 
of  the  greater  po])ularity  of  black-Jind-white. 

While,  therefore,  as  we  have  seen,  there  has  been  a strong 
and  gi'owing  po])iilarity  of  blaek-an(l-whil(*  in  Holland,  th(‘ 
])rejudice  against  red-and-whit(‘  has  ik‘V(‘1'  1)(‘<mi  so  great  as 

* This  general  proportion  was  confii  mod  Ity  one  of  oiir  stiidenls  who  Iraveled 
in  Holland  in  the  siiininer  of  101  o and  made  counts  at  iny  suggestion.  L.  .1.  C. 

fit  was  stated  at  the  Friesian  Society  of  Agriculture  Hint  in  1011  perliaps 
20  per. cent  of  the  adult  cattle  in  Friesland,  were  registered. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  313 


it  lias  ill  America.  Indeed,  the  demand  for  nothing  but  black- 
and-white  animals  for  exportation  lias  undoubtedly  had  an 
important  inlinence  on  breeding  in  Holland.  So  far  as  we 
are  able  to  learn  only  black-and-white  cattle  have  ever  been 
imported  to  this  country  from  Holland  and  no  other  color  can 
be  registered  in  the  Holstein-Friesian  herdbooks.  That  red- 
and-white  calves  are  occasionally  dropped,  however,  by  im- 
ported stock,  and  by  purebred  descendants  of  such  stock,  is 
fairly  well  known  to  most  breeders  of  Holstein-Friesian  cattle. 
The  prejudice  is  so  strong  against  them,  however,  and  they 
are  looked  upon  with  so  much  disfavor  and  suspicion,  as  pos- 
sibly indicating  some  irregularity,  if  not  indeed  actual  cross- 
breeding, that  the  fact  is  not  advertised  when  they  do  occur. 
For  this  reason  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  adeipiate  estimate 
of  the  frequency  of  their  occnnence  in  American  herds,  but 
discussion  with  numerous  breeders  indicates  that  they  occur 
much  less  frequently  in  herds  with  several  generations  behind 
them  in  this  country  than  in  those  which  are  nearer  to  their 
imported  ancestors.  This  is  exactly  what  might  be  expected, 
since  the  selection  is  so  much  more  rigorous  in  America  than 
in  Holland. 

It  would  be  possible  to  give  many  instances  of  the  occur- 
rence of  red-and-white  calves  as  the  OiTspring  of  ynirebred 
Holstein-Friesian  parents  in  this  country,  but  two  will  suffice 
as  examples.  On  account  of  the  prejudice  against  them,  which 
would  also  be  likely  to  attach  to  the  animals  which  throw 
them,  the  names  of  the  animals  and  the  breeders  concerned 
will  not  be  given. 

In  one  case  a bull  owned  by  a successful  and  well-known 
breeder  was  tlirowing  2 to  4 ]>er  cent  red-and-white  calves 
while  in  this  breeder’s  herd.  He  had  produced  69  advanced 
registry  daughters,  and  it  may  be  of  interest  to  call  attention 
to  the  fact  that  half  of  these  daughtei's  may  be  exjiected  to 
throw  some  red-and-white  calves  if  they  should  chance  to  be 
bred  to  a bull  of  the  composition  of  tlieir  sire.  Anothei*  breeder 
of  jmrebred  Holstein-Friesians  reports  a case  of  twins  in  which 
one  of  the  calves  was  black-and-white  and  the  other  red-and- 
white. 

While  by  individual  inquiry  many  other  cases  could  l)e  ac- 


The  Occurrence  op  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds  27 


cumulated,  this  is  sufficient  to  indicate  that  the  appearance  of 
red-and-white  calves  in  Holstein-Friesians  of  American  breed- 
ing is  by  no  means  infrequent,  and  they  may  be  expected, 
though  with  diminishing  frequency,  for  many  years  to  come, 
in  spite  of  the  rigid  selection  imposed  by  the  breed  require- 
ments in  this  country. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  red-and-white  animals, 
if  mated  together,  will  breed  true  to  their  color.  Bakker'^ 
says:  ^‘As  I have  been  informed  by  several  Friesian  breeders 
and  by  the  secretary  of  the  Friesian  cattle  herdbook,  the  red 
color  is  very  constant;  much  more  so  than  the  black,  since  in 
mating  black-and-whites  reversion  to  this  color  not  infrequent- 
ly occurs,  often  after  a very  long  time.’’ 

Plumb^^  makes  the  statement:  ^‘The  color  in  America  is 

almost  always  black  and  white  in  patches,  white  prevailing 
with  some  animals  while  black  prevails  more  with  others. 
In  Holland  red-and-white  animals  of  the  breed  exist  and  sev- 
eral purebred  herds  of  the  color  are  maintained  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  black-and-white.”  We  did  not  hear  of  any  red-and- 
white  herds  in  Holland  in  1911,  except  of  the  Yssel  cattle, 
which  are,  of  course,  of  a different  breed. 

Hofmann^®  remarks  that  the  red-and-whites  occur  in  the 
breeding  of  black-and-whites,  and  that  when  tliey  are  bred  to 
the  latter,  ‘‘calves  of  mixed*  colors”  very  seldom  appear,  but 
that  the  offspring  are  either  red-and-white  or  black-and-white. 
He  furtliermore  states  that  red-and-wliite  calves  may  appear 
even  in  stock  bred  true  for  black-and-white  for  many  genera- 
tions, and  vice  versa. 

Van  Damme^^  reports  that  in  a study  of  the  herdbook  of  the 
federation  of  breeders’  associations  of  East  Flanders,  he  found 
that  when  both  i)arents  wei*e  red-and-white  the  ()ff‘sj)ring  were 
90  per  cent  red-and-white,  2 i)er  cent  blue-gray,  and  2 per  cent 
black  ])iebald.  On  the  basis  of  genetic  knowledge  and  ex- 
perience of  (!’areful  breeders  of  cattle  and  other  livestock,  the 
correctness  of  the  statements  of  Hofmann  and  Van  Damme 
that  black-and-white  ofispring  may  occasionally  be  produced 
from  red-and-white  parents  must  be  (inestioned.  It  has  been 
well  established,  for  exanq)le,  that  chestnut  (sorrel)  horses  do 
not  produce  blacks  or  bays,  yet  a certain  percentage  of  such 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  313 


records  will  be  found  in  the  stud  books.  There  are  many 
chances  of  error  in  recording,  and  a certain  percentage  of 
errors  must  probably  be  expected  in  the  herdbooks. 

A statement  is  also  made  by  Gross^®  regarding  the  inheri- 
tance of  red-and-white  which  we  have  not  seen  confirmed  else- 
where and  which  we  suspect  is  based  on  insufficient  evidence. 
The  East  Friesian  cattle  are  very  similar  to  the  Holland- 
Friesian  breed,  and  undoubtedly  have  the  same  general  origin. 
Among  them,  also,  both  black-and-white  and  red-and-white 
occur,  the  former  predominating,*  and  the  statement  is  made 
that  red-and-white  cows  mated  to  black-and-white  bulls  will 
almost  certainly  produce  red-and-white  calves,  in  which  the 
color  is  rather  dark.^^  In  matings  of  red-and-white  bulls  with 
black-and-wliite  cows,  on  the  other  hand,  the  color  of  the 
offspring  cannot  be  predicted;  sometimes  they  are  red-and- 
white,  sometimes  black-and-white.  Unless  some  different  shade 
of  red  is  concerned,  such,  for  example,  as  the  mahogany  red 
often  seen  in  Ayrshire  bulls,  it  is  probable  that  complete  data 
would  show  that  practically  equal  numbers  of  the  'two  colors 
would  be  produced  whichever  way  the  cross  is  made. 

Some  Economic  Aspects 

As  has  been  said,  only  cattle  black-and-white  in  color,  no 
matter  what  their  parentage  or  other  characters,  can  receive 
recognition  in  this  country  as  purebred  Holstein-Friesians. 
The  fact  that  there  is  an  undercurrent  dt  red  in  the  breed 
which  may  come  to  the  surface  at  any  time  is  not  generally 
known,  or,  if  known,  is  not  understood.  Animals  which  pro- 
duce red-and-white  calves  are  looked  on  with  suspicion  as  to 
their  value,  if  not,  indeed,  as  to  their  purity  of  breeding. 
Sometimes  the  dam  is  considered  to  be  at  fault;  sometimes  the 
blame  is  laid  to  the  sire;  and  it  is  usually  a great  surprise  to 
the  breeder  to  learn  that  they  both  must  be  ecpially  res])onsible. 
Failure  to  understand  the  simple  facts  of  inheritance  involved 
in  tlie  case  occasionally  leads  to  serious  misunderstandings 
wliich  may  involve  transactions  of  considerable  financial  im- 
])ortance  and  charges  of  insincerity  of  dealing,  or  even  dece])- 
tion  and  fraud. 

* Gross  gives  the  proportion  as  7G  per  cent  black-and-white  and  13  per 
cent  red-and-white,  the  other  11  per  cent  presumably  being  of  other  colors. 


The  Occurrence  of  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds  29 


A more  general  knowledge  of  the  facts  will  be  of  great 
value  to  the  breeder  of  purebred  cattle.  The  correspondence 
which  follows  relates  to  a case  in  which  an  understanding  of 
the  simple  laws  of  genetics  involved  helped  to  the  amicable 
settlement  of  a situation  which  might  have  produced  very  un- 
pleasant relations  and  perhaps  even  have  gone  into  the  courts 
for  settlement. 

In  November,  1914,  the  superintendent  of  a state  ins'titution 
in  a neighboring  state  wrote  the  letter,^  from  which  the  fol- 
lowing extract  is  taken : 


A 

! Herd 
I of 

' Good 
; Breeding 


j New 
' Bull 
I Sires 
I Red 
Calf 


“ Second 
i Re<l 
Calf 
I Much 
i Like 
First 


We  have  a herd  of  about  one  hundred  purebred  Holstein  cows 
and  heifers,  excellent  animals,  as  a rule,  some  of  them  being  quite 

valuable.  At  the  head  of  the  herd  was  x\ ,t  No. , a 

son  of  B , No. , whose  dam  was  C , No. . 

The  animal  was  one  that  we  prized  highly,  and  we  expected  to 
increase  our  herd,  breeding  with  the  utmost  (are.  In  the  spring 
of  1013.  in  need  of  another  suitable  sire,  we  purchased  of  a 

western  breeder,  D -,  No. , a grandson  of  E , the 

dam  a 26-pound  cow  of  almost  equally  good  breeding  and  famous 
in  the  state  where  she  is  owned.  The  breeding  of  the  animal 
certainly  appeared  to  be  gilt-edge.  The  breeder  was.  I thought, 
absolutely  reliable.  This  young  sire  was  purchased  especially  for 

the  daughters  of  xV to  whom  I have  referred.  When  we 

had  him  a little  less  than  a year,  one  of  our  cows  who  had 
been  bred  to  him,  a registered  animal,  gave  birth  to  a red  calf; 
that  is,  the  calf  was  red  and  white.  I happened  to  see  the  animal 
shortly  after  its  birth,  and  was  considerably  surprised  and  dis- 
appointed, my  only  explanatioii  for  it  being  that  it  was  due  to 
some  defect  iii  the  breeding.  Our  herdsman  ventured  the  explana- 
tion that  it  was  due  to  a reversion  to  the  type  of  red  Holsteins, 
which  he  stated  were  formerly  bred  in  Holland.  We  wrote  the 
secretary  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  As.sociation  of  x\merica  and 
found  that  such  incidents  had  happened,  and  from  the  letter  that 
we  received  and  the  literature  forwarded  us  on  the  subject  we 
were  entir(^ly  aj)i)eased  in  the  matter. 

A little  later  there  came  to  me  the  very  disquieting  news  that 
there  had  been  another  rcMl  calf  born,  this  time  from  a dam  not 
registered,  but  which  we  piu'sunied  to  be  absolutely  purebred.  The 
reason  for  her  not  being  r(?gistered  w;is  due  to  the  carelessness  of 
a former  herdsman  and  the  breeder  from  whom  w(‘  purchased  the 
animal. 

Contrary  to  Jiiy  iiist I'uct ions  the  first  r(‘d  calf,  whose  ju'digree 
on  both  sides  was  absolutely  clenr,  had  been  slaughtered  for  veal. 
I insisted  upon  keeping  the  second  red  calf,  which  was  so  much 
like  the  first  in  ai)pearance  that  I think  it  would  be  difficult  to 
distinguish  them.  The  calf  is  a tine  animal  with  the  contour  of  a 
fine  Holstein.  If  black  could  be  substiluted  for  I’ed  I think  he 
would  be  ])ractically  without  fault.  All  four  f('et  are  white,  face 
white  and  i)orhaps’one-third  of  the  body.  3Tiis  young  animal  is 
now  owned  by  a maghbor  who  I'egard.s  him  highly  as  an  individual. 


♦ The  coi-respondonce  Ims  been  somewliat  eomlonsed  for  the  sake  of  brevity, 
t For  reasons  previously  mentioned,  tlie  names  of  tlie  animals  concerned 
are  not  mentioned,  though  permission  to  do  so  was  given. 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  313 


Breeder 

Had 

Full 

Confidence 
in  Sire 


Possible 

Lawsuit 

Avoided 


Can 

Red 

Calves 

Come 

from 

Purebred 

Blacks? 


Our  governing  board had,  meanwhile,  taken 

the  matter  up  with  the  breeder  from  whom  we  had  purchased  the 
young  sire,  suggesting  that  we  had  been  injured  and  that  some 
reparation  be  made.  He  had  assured  them  that  he  would  see 
that  “I  would  not  have  cause  to  apologize  for  having  purchased 
a sire  of  him.”  . 

Having  occasion  to  visit  his  farm  somewhat  later,  I discussed 
the  matter  very  fully  with  him  with  no  idea  of  effecting  any 
settlement.  Nothing  was  said  about  any  damage  that  might  have 
been  done  us.  He  assured  me  that  he  had  never  in  his  life  sold 
anything  in  which  he  had  greater  confidence  than  he  had  in  the 
young  sire  that  we  had  bought.  He  then  took  me  to  his  stables 
and  turned  out  three  young  sires,  all  about  one  year  old  and  all 
beautiful  animals.  He  asked  me  how  I liked  them  and  after 
looking  them  over  carefully  I indicated  my  choice.  He  then  said, 
“If  there  is  any  animal  there  that  suits  you  w^e  will  ship  At  to 

Y tomorrow.”  The  dam  of  the  animal  that  I selected  was 

standing  in  the  stable  at  the  time,  giving  daily  about  100  pounds 
of  milk.  The  young  sire  was  a grandson  of  the  King  of  the 
Pontiacs,  and  I really  thought  he  was  a prize.  I told  him 
that  I would  not  accept  his  offer,  but  that  I would  be  glad  to 
convey  it  to  the  governing  board  of  our  institution.  At  the  time 
I had  no  idea  that  it  would  not  be  gladly  accepted  as  full  repara- 
tion for  any  damage  that  might  have  been  done  us. 

After  returning  home  I submitted  the  matter  to  the  governing 
board  and  to  my  surprise  they  absolutely  rejected  the  proposition 
and  demanded  a return  of  the  purchase  price,  $750,  and  in- 
structed me  to  correspond  with  the  breeder  and  make  that  demand. 
From  this  duty  I asked  to  be  excused,  since  I had  already  ex- 
pressed my  own  absolute  satisfaction  with  the  proposition  made 
us.  The  breeder  was  a personal  friend  with  whom  I did  not  wfish 
to  indulge  in  any  correspondence  that  might  possibly  become 
acrimonious,  and  the  duty  was  assigned  to  the  secretary  of  our 
board.  I had  asked  the  breeder  to  hold  the  animal  that  I had 
selected  until  he  could  hear  from  me  after  having  met  the  board. 
Nearly  two  months  elapsed  before  he  heard  from  them.  Some 
feeling  seemed  to  have  been  engendered  on  both  sides,  and  no 
adjustment  of  the  matter  has  been  made.  Meanwhile  other 

calves  had  been  born,  sired  by  D , and  without  exception 

they  had  been  apparently  above  reproach.  I have  not  participated, 
or  have  endeavored  not  to  participate  in  it  in  any  way,  except  to 
insist  upon  my  confidence  in  the  breeder  and  that  I did  not  believe 
that  any  intentional  fraud  had  been  perpetrated  on  us.  My  one 
object  is  to  assume  such  a position  as  would  be  justified  by  a 
disinterested  and  scientific  authority  on  the  subject.  This  is  all 
that  I care  for. 

The  query  that  I wish  to  propound  to  you  is  this : Are  the 

red  calves  compatible  with  pure  breeding  on  both  sides?  Is  it 

possible  for  a grandson  of  E , whose  breeding  is  practically 

as  good  on  the  dam’s  side  as  on  the  sire’s,  to  have  begotten  two 
calves  as  frankly  red  as  they  should  have  been  black?  If  such  a 
thing  is  not  possible,  I wish  to  assume  an  attitude  absolutely 
antagonistic  to  the  breeder,  but  if  it  is  possible  I certainly  do  not 
wish  to  do  him  an  injustice. 


The  reply  to  this  letter  detailed  the  essential  facts  of  the 
history  of  Holsteiu-Friesian  cattle,  the  inheritance  of  red  in 
relation  to  black,  and  the  explanation  of  the  appearance  of 
red-and- white  calves.  It  then  continued: 


The  Occurrence  of  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds  31 


Red 
I Ck>ws 
[ As  Grood 
for  Dairy 
Purposes 


I 

I 


• 

Two  things  are  perfectly  apparent,  which  may  have  a bearing 
in  your  present  case.  The  first  of  these  is,  that  there  is  no  reason 
whatever  why  the  red-and-white  animals  should  not  be  in  every 
way  just  as  good  dairy  cows  as  the  black-and-white.  Further- 
more, they  are  in  every  sense  just  as  truly  “purebred.”  The  only 
trouble  is  that  our  standard  calls-for  black-and-white  animals,  and 
the  breed  has  not  yet  reached  the  point  where  it  has  eliminated 
the  sub-current  of  red-and-white  germ  plasm.  In  horses  this 
difficulty  is  avoided  by  placing  less  importance  on  color,  for,  as 
you  are  aw’are,  one  may  have  the  different  colors  within  the 
same  breed. 


Sire 
and 
Dam 
Equally 
to  Blame 


Another  point  is  that  whenever  a red-and-white  calf  is  pro- 
duced from  two  black-and-white  parents,  there  is  equal  “blame” 
on  the  part  of  both  parents.  For  unless  both  carried  the  red 
recessive  to  the  black,  no  red-and-white  calves  would  appear. 

We  have  run  out  the  pedigree  of  D and  there  certainly 

can  be  no  doubt  of  his  coming  of  good  breeding.  The  only  thing 
that  surprised  me  was  the  distance  that  we  had  to  go  back  to 
get  any  considerable  number  of  imported  ancestors. 


That  our  letter  had  helped  to  clear  up  the  situation  for 
the  time  was  indicated  by  the  reply  to  it,  which  was,  in  jiart,  as 
follows : 


i Should 
Such 
a Bull 
Head  a 
Purebred 
Herd? 


Has 

the 

Herd 

Been 

Injuretl? 


I think  the  whole  proposition  is  now  very  thoroughly  under- 
stood by  the  governing  board  of  the  institution,  and  whatever 
suspicions  may  have  existed  in  their  minds  in  regard  to  the 
matter  have  been  removed  by  your  very  lucid  explanation.  A 
little  difference  of  opinion  seemed  to  prevail  even  at  the  end  in 
regard  to  a couple  of  propositions  that  were  of  importance  to  us. 
I think  our  people  are  prepared  to  regard  the  matter  now  in  an 
absolutely  dispassionate  way,  but  there  was  a difference  of  opinion 

as  to  whether  D should  be  restored  to  the  prestige  of  his 

former  position  as  head  of  our  herd.  Some  took  the  view  that 
inasmuch  as  the  i)urity  of  his  breeding  was  unquestioned  and 
that  his  ancestors  are  among  the  best  milking  strain  to  be  found 
anywhere,  that  there  was  no  reason  why  he  should  be  deposed. 
Others,  while  admitting  this,  were  of  the  opinion  that  it  might 
detract  from  the  commercial  value  of  any  animal  that  we  might 
sell,  being  understood  that  they  were  sired  by  a black-and-white 
parent  carrying  the  red  character. 

Another  query  which  some  would  like  to  have  answered  is 
whether  the  party  from  whom  we  purchased  this  animal  is 
under  any  obligations  whatever  for  any  injury  that  might  have 
come  to  our  herd.  Is  the  herd  in  any  way  injured  except  in  a 
matter  which  in  its  last  analysis  is  purely  a sentimental  oneV 
We  wish  to  regard  the  interests  of  the  breed  of  IIolstein-Friesian 
cattle  as  much  as  anything  else  in  the  \yhole  matter,  and  do  not 
wish  to  do  anything  that  will  be  a detriment  either  to  our  herd 
or  the  breed  in  general. 


In  response  to  tliese  further  (piestions,  the  following  letter 
was  sent: 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  313 


Red 

Calves 

Objected 

to  by 

Breeder, 

not 

Dairyman 


What  course  should  be  taken  under  the  circumstances,  it 
seems  to  me,  depends  in  part  upon  local  conditions,  and  very 
largely  upon  one’s  estimate  of  the  economic  importance  of  the 
prejudice  against  red-and-white  calves  appearing  in  Holstein 
herds.  Both  views  seem  to  me  correct,  and  it  is  simply  a matter 
of  weighing  their  relative  importance  and  deciding  accordingly. 
If  I were  in  the  dairy  business  I should  have  no  prejudice  against 
the  red-and-white  animals  from  the  dairy  standpoint,  but  if  I were 
also  depending  in  part  for  my  income  upon  the  sale  of  purebred 
stock,  I should  feel  it  incumbent  upon  me  to  consider  and  give 
weight  to  any  factor,  which,  whether  justly  or  unjustly,  would 
nevertheless  influence  the  market  value  of  such  stock.  There  is 
no  getting  around  the  fact  that,  under  present  conditions,  whether 
rightly  so  or  not,  the  prejudice  against  red-and-white  calves  does 
have  such  influence. 


This  much  may  be  safely  said;  If  I were  very  desirous  of 
building  up  a strain  of  Holstein  cattle  which  would  not  throw 
occasional  red-and-white  calves,  T should  not  use  a bull  which 
produced  any  such  calves.  Please  understand  me,  for  I say  that 
this  would  be  the  case  if  I put  the  matter  of  color  above  other 
things.  If  two  animals  were  equal  in  other  respects,  I should 
certainly  give  way  to  the  preference  for  color.  The  best  proceed- 
ing in  this  particular  case  depends  finally  upon  matters  whfch  are 
economic  and  outside  the  field  of  genetics. 

Regarding  the  matter  of  damage  which  may  have  been  done 
your  herd,  I would  simply  recall  to  you  the  fact  that  when  a red- 
and-white  calf  is  produced,  the  fault  is  equal  on  the  part  of  the 
sire  and  dam. 


Some  new  developments  in  the  case  were  contained  in  a 
letter  received  the  following  Jannarv: 


Another 

Sire 

Produces 

Red 

Calf 


Just  what  course  we  will  pursue  in  regard  to  the  sire.  D , 

has  not  yet  been  definitely  decided,  but  there  is  another  chapter 
opened  since  I wrote  you  last  that  possibly  in  a way  alters  the 
aspect  of  things.  A short  time  ago  we  had  another  red  Holstein 
calf  born  on  the  place.  This  time  the  sire  is  A — — — , who  I 
think  was  generally  regarded  second  to  no  Holstein  sire  in  the 
state.  He  had  been  the  head  of  our  herd  for  four  years  and, 
previous  to  that  time,  for  two  or  three  years  at  the  State  Agricul- 
tural College  at  . This  is  the  first  red  calf, 

however,  that  has  been  sired  by  him.  Probably  the  highest  price 
that  was  ever  offered  for  a sire  in  tlie  state  was  offered  for  one 

of  his  calves.  F . Our  whole  herd,  in  which  we  take  a good 

deal  of  pride,  is  liable  to  damage  by  tbe  prejudice  against  red 
Holsteins. 


The  facts  in  the  foregoing  correspon deuce  are  so  clear 
that  no  extended  discussion  is  necessary.  The  outstanding 
points  are  that  no  fraud  was  concerned,  that  both  parties  were 
acting  in  perfectly  good  faith,  hut  that  in  the  herds  both  of 
the  institution  concerned  and  of  tlie  breeder  from  whom  the 
new  herd  sire  was  purchased  the  undercurrent  of  red  color 
was  present  without  the  knowledge  of  the  owners.  The  fur- 
ther point  of  interest  is  that  an  understanding  of  the  simple 


The  Occurrence  of  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds  33 


laws  of  genetics  governing  the  inheritance  of  red  and  black 
removed  all  basis  of  contention. 

As  has  been  fully  demonstrated,  the  appearance  of  red-and- 
white  Holstein-Friesian  calves  is  not  necessarily  evidence  of 
lack  of  pure  breeding.  On  the  other  hand  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  crossbreeding  or  outbreeding  with  red  cattle  or  with 
animals  carrying  red  would  introduce  this  character  into  the 
liereditar}^  makeup  of  the  offspring  and  the  red  might  appear 
wlienever  two  animals  carrying  it  chanced  to  be  mated.  That 
is,  its  inheritance  is  the  same  whether  it  has  been  carried 
down  from  generation  to  generation  from  an  original  red-and- 
white  ])arent  in  Holland,  or  whether  it  should  be  introduced 
by  crossbreeding.  There  is,  then,  it  would  appear,  some  ground 
for  sus})icion  of  the  latter  possibility  when  a red  calf  appears, 
and  in  such  a case  it  is  very  j)roper  that  the  pedigree  and 
breeding  of  the  animals  concerned  should  be  looked  into  very 
carefully.  The  integrity  of  the  breeder  is,  of  course,  another 
factor  in  the  situation.  If  the  suspicion  falls,  however,  on  an 
animal  that  lias  been  bought  or  brought  in  from  another 
source,  it  would  be  well  for  the  breeder  to  recall  that  when  a 
red  calf  is  dropped,  of  its  parents  are  equally  to  hlame. 
Since  grade  cows  are  more  likely  than  purebreds  to  carry 
the  inlieritance  of  red,  this  explains  why  they  more  often  drop 
red  calves  tlian  do  purebreds.  But  again,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  they  will  produce  red  calves  only  if  the  bull  also 
carries  tlie  trait.  If  a black  bull  sires  a red  calf  it  proves 
tliat  he  is  a ^bnasipierader”  carrying  red,  no  matter  whether 
the  cow  to  wliich  he  is  bred  is  lierself  red  or  black. 

Finally  this  question  might  be  raised.  Since  it  is  natural 
for  black  Holstein-Friesian s occasionally  to  produce  red  calves, 
is  it  desirable  that  the  standard  should  admit  only  the  former 
as  belonging  to  the  breed,  whereas  it  has  been  shown  that  the 
latter  are  in  every  way  as  purely  bred,  and  undoubtedly  stand 
fully  as  good  a chance  of  inheriting  the  good  economic  quali- 
ties of  the  breed?  This  is  a complicated  question  and  cannot 
now  be  discussed  fully.  The  great  disadvantage  of  throwing 
out  the  red  calves  is  that  it  limits  to  that  extent  the  range  of 
possible  selection  for  other  jioints.  No  matter  how  good  an 
animal  it  may  be  in  other  resj>ects,  the  red  calf  must  be  dis- 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  313 


carded  on  the  basis  of  breed  dictates.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  decided  advantages  in  having  a breed  uniform  in 
obvious  characteristics.  It  not  only  seems  to  bespeak  purer 
breeding  and  more  rigid  selection,  but  as  the  breed  comes  by 
rigid  'elimination  of  other  characters  to  be  more  nearly  ^^pure” 
for  those  which  appertain  to  it,  there  is  more  reason  to  look 
on  any  non-conforming  individual  with  suspicion. 

The  present  method  of  eliminating  all  red  animals  from  the 
herd  is  rapidly  decreasing  the  number  of  animals  carrying  red, 
and  consequently  the  appearance  of  red-and- white  Holstein - 
Friesian  calves  will  become  correspondingly  more  infrequent. 
This  process  could  be  greatly  hastened  by  eliminating  imme- 
diately from  further  breeding  all  animals,  both  dams  and  sires, 
which  ever  produce  red-and-white  calves,  but  the  end  to  be 
attained  would  in  no  way  justify  the  cost  of  such  a procedure 
to  the  breeder  and  to  the  breed.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would 
be  an  easy  matter,  if  it  were  worth  while,  to  test  bulls  as  to 
their  purity  for  black,  in  which  case  they  could  be  sold  with 
a guarantee  that  they  would  produce  only  black  calves.  This 
\est  could  best  be  made  bv  breeding  the  bulls  to  a sufficient 
number  of  red  cows,  which  would  be  used  for  that  specific 
purpose.  Whether  such  a guarantee  would  sufficiently  en- 
hance the  value  of  the  animals  to  recompense  for  the  trouble 
and  cost  of  the  testing  is  a question  we  are  not  in  a position 
to  answer.  Furthermore,  most  bulls  are  disposed  of  at  an  age 
before  such  a test  could  be  made. 

There  is  no  question  that  the  present  attitude  with  respect 
to  the  occurrence  of  red-and-wliite  Holstein-Friesian  calves 
has  proved  of  vital  importance  to  many  breeders.  We  could 
cite  instances  in  which  the  prejudice  against  the  animals  of 
certain  breeders,  resulting  from  this  cause,  has  made  it  neces- 
sary for  these  men  virtually  to  close  out  their  stock  and  to 
start  anew,  and  this,  too,  in  the  case  of  men  whose  integrity 
could  not  be  questioned.  This  is  unfortunate,  and  it  would 
seem  that  a more  liberal-minded  attitude  would  be  of  benefit 
to  all  concerned.  At  present  it  is  considered  almost  a dis- 
grace, or  at  least  a very  disparaging  admission,  to  have  it 
known  that  a red-and-white  calf  has  been  dropped  in  a Hol- 
stein-Friesian herd.  If  the  natural  liability  of  such  an  occur- 


The  Occurrence  of  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds 


oO 


reiice  were  more  widely  recognized  and  openly  admitted  by 
all  breeders  of  these  cattle,  it  would  be  possible  by  more 
direct  means  to  select  in  such  a way  as  to  effect  the  final 
elimination  of  the  color  from  the  breed.  The  only  fliiancial 
loss  then  would  be  the  difference  in  price  which  the  red-and- 
white  calf  would  bring  from  not  being  eligible  to  registry. 
Such  calves,  when  heifers,  should  not  be  vealed,  but  being 
from  high  milk-prodncing  stock  should  be  sold  to  dairymen 
who  are  producing  milk  but  are  not  breeding,  ^"ealing  them, 
or  what  is  jirobably  more  common,  disposing  of  them  secretly 
with  no  return  whatever,  is  an  unnecessary  loss  not  only  to 
the  owner,  but  to  the  food-producing  resources  of  the  conntr^L 
It  is  fully  recognized,  however,  that  this  course  cannot  well  be 
followed  without  a distinct  change  in  sentiment  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  it  is  hoped  that  wider  knowledge  of  the  matter  may 
contribute  somewhat  to  that  end. 


lUBLIOGRAPHY 


AVilsoii,  James.  Tlie  evolntioii  of  British  cattle  and  the  fashioning 
of  the  breeds.  London.  1909. 

The  principles  of  stock  breeding,  p.  29.  London. 

1912. 

^ The  evolution  of  British  cattle  and  the  fashion- 

ing of  the  breeds,  p.  125.  London.  1909. 

TJoyd-Jones  and  Evvard.  Inheritance  of  color  and  horns  in  blue- 
gray  cattle.  Iowa  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Res.  Bui.  30.  1916. 

Tlakker,  D.  L.  Studien  iiber  die  Geschichte,  den  heutigen  Zustand 
und  die  Zukunft  des  Rindes  und  seiner  Zucht  in  den  Niederlanden  mit 
besonderer  kritischer  Beriicksichtigung  der  Arbeitsweise  des  Xiederland- 
ischen  Rindviehstaminbuches.  6 :138  :Gpp.  Mastricht,  1909. 

«Ohio  State  Board  Agr.  Ann.  Rpt.  20:  38.  1886. 

Blolstein  ITerdbook.  1 : 14.  1872. 

nbk\.  p.  16. 

^Sanders.  Breeds  of  livestock,  p.  354.  1887. 

^‘’Hofmann.  Das  Hollander  Rind.  p.  31.  1905. 

^^Bakker.  loc.  cit.  p.  94. 

^'T'riesian  Soc.  Agr.  Friesland  as  an  agricultural  province,  p.  5. 

1913. 

^^Iloxie.  IIolstein-Friesian  World.  12 :43.  p.  2156.  1915. 

^^Bakker.  loc.  cit.  p.  23. 

^“Pluinb.  Types  and  breeds  of  farm  animals,  p.  267.  1906, 
^Tlofmann,  Die  hollandische  Rindviehschlage.  p.  32.  1905. 

^Ttev,  Gen.  Agron,  n.  ser.  3(1908)  :9  pp.  363-365. 

See  Exp.  Sta.  Record.  20  :568.  1909. 

^Tlross,  H.  Das  Ostfriesische  Rind.  p.  26.  Leipzig,  1905. 

^”Gross.  loc.  cit.  p.  23. 


August,  1920 


3o.n 

Bulletin  314 


DIGEST 


The  meat  products  of  Wisconsin  are  steadily  increasing.  Until 

recently  most  of  the  livestock  was  shipped  directly  by  the  farmer  or 
•through  local  buyers.  Page  3. 

Cooperative  shipping  of  livestock  began  in  Wisconsin  about  1908. 

The  first  associations  were  organized  at  Kiver  Falls  and  East  Ellsworth 
and  were  so  successful  that  the  number  has  steadily  grown.  The  busi- 
ness in  1916  was  over  $11,000,000.  Pages  4 to  6. 

Farmers  save  over  $1,500,000  a year  by  cooperation  in  shipping. 

Much  time  and  labor  is  saved  in  buying,  collecting,  and  delivering  stock. 

Pages  6 to  9. 

The  cooperative  livestock  shipping  association  has  probably  the 
best  opportunity  for  success  of  any  cooperative  business  association  of 
farmers.  Page  9. 

The  manager  should  be  w^ell  paid,  the  pay  depending  upon  the 
amount  of  time  and  labor  he  must  give  to  the  work.  Much  depends  upon 
his  efficiency.  Pages  9 to  11. 

Shipping  associations  have  special  business  problems.  Identifica- 
tion of  stock,  weighing  at  the  home  station,  transportation  and  commis 
sion  charges,  and  payment  to  farmers  are  largely  handled  by  the  man- 
ager. Pages  11  to  14,. 

The  expense  of  cooperative  shipping  averages  $93  a car.  This 
includes  expense  at  the  terminal  market,  freight,  manager’s  salary,  and 
incidental  expense  at  the  home  market.  Shrinkage  is  not  included  be- 
cause it  depends  on  so  many  different  conditions.  Tuberculosis  is  also 
a factor.  Pages  14  to- 17. 

A national  federation  of  shipping  associations  has  recently  been 
formed.  The  number  of  large  and  successful  associations  in  the  United 
States  forecasts  the  permanence  of  the  organization.  Pages  17  to  18. 

The  adoption  of  a constitution  and  by-laws  helps  to  solve  many  of 
the  problems  that  arise  in  an  association.  Pages  18  to  2 2. 


Wisconsin  Livestock  Shipping  Associations 

B.  H.  Hibbard  L.  G.  Foster  D.  G.  Davis 

Wisconsin  is  maintaining  steady  development  in  its  con- 
tribution to  the  meat  products  of  the  nation.  It  is  estimated 
that  approximately  508,000  cattle,  362,000  calves,  1,332,000 
hogs  and  241,000  sheep  and  lambs  were  shipped  from  Wiscon- 
sin during  1918  to  the  central  stock  yards  at  Chicago,  Cudahy, 
Milwaukee  and  South  St.  Paul.  The  approximate  numbers 
shipped  in  1917  were  498,000  cattle,  312,000  calves,  1,269,000 
hogs  and  213,000  sheep  and  lambs.  The  following  table  will 
furnish  the  reader  with  some  idea  of  the,  size  and  value  of  the 
annual  meat  production  of  Wisconsin : 


TABLE  1.  ESTIMATED  NUMBER  AND  VALUE  OF  LIVESTOCK 
SOLD  FROM  OR  SLAUGHTERED  ON  FARMS  IN  1918  AND  1917* 


Number 

Value  in  Dol- 
lars per  head 

Total  value  in  dol- 
lars 

1918 

1917 

1918 

1917 

1Q18 

1917 

Cattle  

077.000 

603.000 

309.000 
1,903,000 

660,000 

520.000 

272.000 
1,813,000 

77 

16 

12 

30 

64 

14 

11 

24 

52.129.000 

9.648.000 

3.708.000 

57.090.000 

42.240.000 

7.280.000 

2.990.000 

44.512.000 

Calves  

Sheep  

Swine  

Total  value 

122,575,000 

97,024,000 

♦ Biennial  report  of  the  Wisconsin  Department  of  Agriculture,  1918, 


The  percentage  of  each  kind  of  stock  shipped  in  comparison 
with  all  of  the  same  kind  of  stock  sold  or  slaughtered  is: 
cattle,  75  per  cent;  calves,  60  per  cent;  hogs,  70  per  cent;  sheep, 
78  per  cent. 

Until  recently  most  of  the  livestock  sold  from  Wisconsin 
farms  was  shipped  either  directly  by  the  owners  or  sold  to  and 
shipped  by  local  buyers.  Occasionally,  a few  farmers  get  to- 
gether as  a grouj),  make  up  a carload  of  stock  and  ship  it.  At 
present  by  no  means  a small  part  of  the  livestock  is  shipped 
through  the  medium  of  what  is  known  as  a cooperative  live- 
stock shipping  association. 

It  is  reported  that  at  least  75  per  cent  of  the  livestock 
shipped  into  the  South  St.  Paul  market  is  shipped  by  co- 
operative associations.  At  Chicago  the  estimate  is  placed  at 
approximately  15  per  cent,  and  that  percentage  is  constantly 
growing,  for  even  the  western  states  have  recently  begun  to 
organize  such  associations. 


4 


W isconsin  Bulletin  314 


History  of  Wisconsin  ^Shipping  Associations 

The  hrst  cooperative  livestock  shipping  associations  or- 
ganized in  this  state  were,  according  to  our  records,  those 
tormed  at  Kiver  T ails  and  East  Ellsworth  in  1908.  The  one 
at  Kiver  Falls  was  made  up  ol  a small  number  of  farmers 
who  combined  their  livestock  to  make  a carload  for  shipment 
to  market.  This  association  succeeded  from  the  first,  despite 
great  opposition.  It  is  operating  today  as  a department  of 
the  local  equity  society  and  last  year  did  a volume  of  business 
amounting  to  121  carloads.  The  shipping  association  located 
at  East  Ellsworth  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  largest  in  the 
state.  It  handles  at  present  practically  all  the  livestock 
marketed  from  East  Ellsworth  by  about  500  farmers,  in 
1918  it  shipped  270  carloads  of  livestock. 

The  immediate  success  of  these  first  efi’orts  inspired  the  or- 
ganization of  other  similar  associations  in  ditt’erent  parts  of 
the  state.  By  the  early  part  of  1917,  the  total  number  of 
associations  approximated  240.  By  August  1,  1919,  the  De- 
partment of  Agricultural  Economics  had  recorded  350  shipping 
associations.  There  are  a considerable  number  more  of  which 
no  record  could  easily  be  obtained.  In  addition,  many  co- 
operative associations  organized  primarily  for  other  purposes 
carry  on  livestock  shipping  as  an  important  sideline.  It  is 
quite  safe  to  estimate  the  total  number  of  shipping  associa- 
tions in  the  state  of  Wisconsin  on  J anuary  1,  1920,  as  approxi- 
mately 500. 

A study  of  the  business  done  by  Wisconsin  cooperative 
shipping  associations  in  1916  shows  that  there  were  shipped 
to  the  central  markets  and  to  small  packing  industries  11,120 
cars  at  an  estimated  value  of  over  |11,132,000.  This  makes  an 
average  of  47  carloads  of  livestock  for  each  association. 

Since  1917  the  volume  of  business  handled  by  cooperative 
shipping  associations  has  steadily  increased.  Many  commis- 
sion firms,  which  at  one  time  were  unwilling  to  handle  the  co- 
operative business,  with  all  the  extra  work  of  grading,  sorting 
and  bookkeeping  it  entailed,  now  find  that  it  is  paying  them 
to  build  up  and  solicit  such  business.  Some  firms  advertise 
the  fact  that  they  have  men  who  will  go  out  and  help  to 


Wisconsin  Livestock  Shipping  Associations 


5 


It  will  be  noticed  that  the  associations  are  fairly  evenly  distributed  over 
the  state,  with  the  exception  of  the  northern  and  central  parts.  In  these 
sections,  livestock  is  not  yet  so  plentiful. 


orj^aiiize  sliipjiiiig  associations  ami  put  them  on  a firm,  busi- 
ness-like foundation.  Tlie  general  belief  prevails  at  Soutli  St. 
Paul  and  ('liicago  that  the  coojierative  shi])])ing  has  ('ome 
to  stay  and  is  bound  to  grow  in  volume. 

Returns  i-eceived  fi'om  47  shi])ping  asotdations  doing 
business  prior  to  .January  1,  llHb,  show  that  these  asso- 
ciations shipj)(‘d  an  average  of  (il  cai'loads  each  lo  the  markets 
for  Wisconsin  livestock,  or  a total  of  .4,014  carloads  a year. 
This  would  suggest,  that  the  total  imndKU'  of  carloads  shi])])ed 


0 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  314 


cooperatively  from  Wisconsin  farms  to  market  in  1918  was 
in  the  neighborhood  of  20,000,  and  in  1919  not  less  than  30,000. 
One  cannot  say  what  the  average  value  of  a carload  is,  but 
taking  as  representative  the  values  reported  by  one  of  the 
largest  companies,  |1,874,  the  total  would  be  156,220,000.  This 
is  probably  two-fifths  of  the  total  value  of  all  shipments  for  the 
state. 

In  a questionnaire  sent  to  a large  number  of  shipping  asso- 
ciations, one  question  was  asked  as  to  the  percentage  of  the 
stock  of  the  respective  communities  handled  by  them.  The 
average  of  72  answers  to  this  question  was  65  per  cent. 

Why  cooperative  associations  of  this  type  have  been  formed 
has  been  explained  by  a large  number  of  correspondents.  For 
the  most  part  the  reasons  given  reduce  to  two,  and  it  might 
almost  be  said,  to  one.  That  local  stock  buyers  do  not  pay 
what  stock  is  worth  is  the  emphatic  one.  This  should  be  inter- 
preted in  terms  of  the  farmer’s  point  of  view.  The  stock  buyer 
may  pay  all  he  can  afford  to  pay,  yet  not  as  much  as  the 
farmer  by  other  means  can  get. 

The  other  reason  is  that  farmers  doing  their  own  shipping 
are  more  independent  as  to  the  time  and  manner  of  the  ship- 
ment. They  have  a better  opportunity  to  group  and  grade; 
to  get  stock  into  condition;  to  choose  the  market  to  which  it 
shall  go,  and  the  time  when  it  shall  go. 

Can  it  be  said  that  shipping  associations  have  accomplished 
that  which  they  set  out  to  accomplish?  Decidedly  yes,  even 
allowing  for  the  occasional  failures  and  the  many  problems 
and  difficulties  with  which  some  associations  have  to  contend. 
Estimates  from  managers  of  150  associations  placed  the  sav- 
ing at  from  20  cents  to  |2.50  a hundred-weight  and  from  |15 
to  |250  a car.  The  great  majority  of  estimates  lie  between  |50 
and  |150  a car.  Using  the  lowest  figure  the  total  saving  would 
amount  to  |1,500,000  a year. 

Advantages  op  Cooperative  Livestock  Shipping 
Associations 

Many  advantages  result  to  the  members  of  livestock  ship- 
ping associations,  to  the  community  where  such  an  association 
is  doing  business,  and  to  the  livestock  industry  in  general. 


Wisconsin  Livestock  Shipping  xIssociations 


7 


1.  The  producer  of  livestock  receives  a greater  net  return. 
He  receives  market  price  for  his  livestock  less  actual  cost  of 
marketing.  This  is  particularly  true  of  miscellaneous  stock, 
such  as  canners  or  veals.  It  is  not  often  that  a uniform  ship- 
ment of  such  stock  is  made. 

2.  Farmers  become  familiar  with  the  market  and  market 
demands.  In  this  way,  they  soon  learn  to  know  the  market 
grades  and  classes  and  govern  production  accordingly. 

3.  Farmers  learn  not  to  overfeed  stock,  since  overfeeding 
results  in  excessive  loss  from  shrinkage  and  deaths  or  injuries 
to  stock  while  in  transit. 

4.  Much  time  and  labor  spent  in  buying,  collecting  and 
delivering  stock  for  shipment  by  local  buyers  is  saved  by  the 
cooperative  shipping  association,  which  handles  much  of  the 
business  in  a single  locality  through  one  manager.  In  fact, 
there  are  entire  counties  in  Wisconsin  where  one  manager 
handles  the  bulk  of  the  shipments.  For  example,  the  business 
of  the  Chippewa  County  Shipping  Association  is  handled 
almost  entirely  by  one  manager. 


TABLE  2.  BARRON  COUNTY  SHIPPING  ASSOCIATIONS 


Shipping  ass’n 
place 

No.  of 
members 

Cars  shipped 

Total  amount  received  for 
shipments 

1917 

1918 

1 1917 

1918 

1. 

Almena  

194 

18 

27 

$ 26,240 

$ 51,369 

2. 

Barron  

41 

0 

57,892 

138,031 

a. 

Barronett  

55 

* 

4 

* 

7,161 

4. 

Beaver  Produce 

Assn.,  Turtle  Lake 

117 

23 

29 

21,791 

41,962 

Cameron  

115 

* 

11 

* 

18,738 

fi. 

Canton  

93 

4 

12 

6,212 

20,122 

7. 

Cedar  Lake  

8. 

Mikana  

12 

* 

3 

* 

5,283 

9. 

Comstock  

71 

* 

12 

* 

18,771 

10. 

Chetek  

80 

G 

14 

11,860 

26,470 

11. 

Cumberland  

. 271 

* 

32 

* 

59,631 

12. 

Dallas  

118 

17 

31 

27,738 

61,500 

13. 

Hillsdale  

3G 

56,2G2 

74,563 

14. 

Poskin  Lake  .... 

20G 

22 

43 

37,218 

64,984 

ir>. 

Rice  Lake  

lOG 

♦ 

14 

* 

26,959 

IG. 

Ridgeland  

200 

41 

31 

5G,799 

56,565 

17. 

Stanford  

210 

13 

21,496 

18. 

Campla  

Total  

.$302,012 

$692,605 

• Organized  In  1918. 


5.  Tlie  farmer  can  market  his  stock  wlien  it  is  ready  for 
shipment  without  waiting  for  the  buyer  to  see  it. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  314 


6.  During  periods  of  car  shortage,  through  the  efforts  of 
au  association,  farmers  can  get  their  share  of  the  cars. 

7.  Any  crippled  cattle  or  hogs  can  be  disposed  of  and 
made  to  bring  very  nearly  the  market  price,  whereas  formerly 
such  animals  usually  sold  for  half  price. 

8.  The  farmer  is  educated  to  high  standards  of  livestock 
breeding,  since  he  will  see  that  when  he  ships  a good  animal 
it  brings  a correspondingly  good  price.  Packing  interests  are 
favorably  disposed  toward  shipping  associations  because  they 
see  that  it  eventually  means  choicer  quality  in  the  stock  they 
handle. 


CATTLE 
HOGS 
MIXED 
□ SHEEP 
CALVES 


CAR  LOAD  SHIPMENTS  OF  WISCONSIN  LIVE  STOCK 


FIG.  2. COOPERATIVE  SHIPPING  REDUCED  NUMBER  OF  MIXED  CARLOADS 

Compared  with  other  north  central  states,  this  state  ships  many  mixed 
carloads.  The  cooperative  action  of  100  or  more  farmers  around  a given  point 
makes  it  possible  to  ship  a larger  number  of  cars  of  a given  kind  of  stock. 


Wisconsin  Livestock  Shipping  Associations 


9 


9.  The  individual  farmer  receives  genuine  consideration 
at  the  central  market  due  to  the  volume  of  business  handled 
through  his  association. 

10.  The  community  in  general  will  gain  in  importance  and 
reputation  by  the  existence  of  a live,  enterprising  shipping 
association. 

Conditions  Required  for  Successful  Operation* 

Compared  with  other  forms  of  cooperative  business  associa- 
tions of  farmers,  the  cooperative  livestock  shipping  association 
has  an  equal,  if  not  better,  opportunity  for  success.  Such  an 
organization  is  fairly  simple  in  operation,  requires  practically 
no  capital,  and  accomplishes  results  which  are  definitely  visible 
to  those  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  investigate  carefully. 

Good  will  of  the  farmers  in  the  community,  and  the  willing- 
ness to  cooperate  and  show  the  proper  spirit  of  loyalty  to  the 
association  to  which  they  have  pledged  their  support,  are  prime 
requisites  at  the  outset.  There  must  be,  as  in  all  similar  or- 
ganizations, strong,  capable  and  efficient  leaders. 

Enough  stock  must  be  within  reach  of  the  association  to 
make  it  possible  to  ship  out  full  carloads  regularly.  When 
one  association  has  not  enough  stock,  it  can  sometimes  accom- 
plish the  desired  result  by  cooperating  with  shipping  associa- 
tions in  neighboring  towns.  Thus  the  loading  may  be  started 
at  one  point  and  completed  at  another. 

Number  of  members.  On  a study  of  the  facts  as  to  number 
of  members  required  to  make  an  association  a success,  it 
appears  that  the  amount  of  stock  involved  is  of  more  conse- 
quence than  the  number  of  men.  The  average  number  of 
patrons,  members  and  non-members  of  140  associations  re- 
porting, is  slightly  over  100.  It  is  fairly  safe  to  say  that,  as  a 
rule,  under  50  will  be  too  few. 

A good  manager  is  necessary.  His  efficiency  or  inefficiency 
may  result  in  the  saving  or  loss  to  the  association  of  an  amount 
many  times  the  salary  he  receives.  Unless  a man  can  be 
secured  who  has  the  necessary  energy,  ability,  experience  and 
time  to  devote  himself  to  the  job,  and  unless  that  man  has  the 

* See  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bill.  238,  “Agricultural  Cooperation,”  for  a more 
extended  discussion  of  this  general  subject.  , 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  314 


intelligence  to  read  and  understand  market  reports,  to  advise 
the  members  of  the  association  as  to  the  best  time  to  ship,  and 
to  educate  the  members  in  business  principles  of  marketing, 
the  association  will  not  last  long.  Livestock  commission  firms 
are  almost  of  one  accord  in  the  belief  that  success  or  failure 
depends  to  the  extent  of  90  per  cent  on  a competent  man- 
ager. When  such  a man  is  found  he  should  be  paid  enough 
to  make  it  worth  his  while  to  devote  his  attention  to  the 
position  he  holds.  Large  associations  will  doubtless  profit  by 
paying  enough  to  require  the  whole  of  the  manager’s  time. 
A competent  manager  will  keep  down  the  losses  in  transit 
due  to  deaths,  cripples  and  heavy  shrinkages,  and  will  earn 
his  salary  many  times  over. 

There  are  advantages  and  disadvantages  in  hiring  for  man- 
ager a man  who  has  been  an  independent  shipper.  No  doubt 
he  knows  much  about  the  business,  but  he  will  many  times 
be  distrusted  by  the  members.  Such  men  often  have  little 
faith  in  co-operation  and  may  have  a motive  in  seeing  it  fail. 

Paying  the  manager.  As  suggested  in  the  sample  by-laws 
found  in  the  appendix  there  are  several  ways  of  paying  the 
manager.  He  may  be  paid  by  the  day,  by  the  car  or  by  the 
hundred-weight  or  he  may  be  allowed  a percentage  of  the 
receipts.  The  popular  Avay  of  paying  the  manager  is  by  the 
hundred- weight  or  by  the  car.  Out  of  79  companies  reporting 
on  the  point  27  paid  by  the  hundred  and  32  by  the  car.  Of 
those  paying  by  the  hundred  the  majority  paid  3 to  5 cents 
on  hogs  and  cattle,  and  5 to  10  cents  on  calves  and  sheep. 
Those  paying  by  the  car  allowed  from  |3  to  |15  a car.  The 
lower  payment  was  probably  for  additional  cars  after  paying 
from  |5  to  |10  for  the  first  car  in  any  given  shipment.  The 
|15  was  for  doing  all  local  work  and  accompanying  the  car  to 
market. 

The  pay  which  the  manager  gets  should  vary  with  the  size 
of  the  shipments  made,  the  amount  of  time  he  has  to  spend 
on  the  work,  and  the  excellence  of  the  service  he  is  able  to 
give.  While  a manager  should  be  well  paid  it  often  happens 
that  he  may  do  the  work  without  interfering  very  greatly  with 
other  duties.  For  example,  a considerable  number  of  farmers 
arq  acting  as  managers  devoting  a third  to  half  of  the  time 


Wisconsin  Livestock  Shipping  Associations 


11 


to  shipping  and  the  remainder  to  farming.  Manifestly  such 
managers  should  not  be  paid  by  the  association  for  full  time. 

Methods  op  Doing  Business 

No  attempt  will  be  made  here  to  go  into  the  details  of 
handling  and  shipping  stock  in  general,  but  only  to  the  extent 
in  which  cooperative  associations  find  problems  peculiar  to 
themselves.  Likewise  the  questions  pertaining  to  sale  of  stock 
at  the  central  markets  will  be  dealt  with  only  to  the  extent 
that  cooperative  associations  are  given  special  consideration. 

BUYING  STOCK  VS.  RECEIVING  STOCK 

The  cooperative  association  seldom  buys  stocU  at  all.  It 
receives  it  for  shipment,  the  ownership  still  remaining  with 
the  farmer.  However,  it  performs  the  service  formerly  per- 
formed by  the  stock  buyer.  One  of  the  great  economies  of 
the  cooperative  company  is  that  the  stock  comes  to  it  without 
solicitation.  The  cost  to  the  buyer  of  finding  stock  and  getting 
it  away  from  a competitor  is  one  of  the  heaviest  charges  which 
the  business  has  to  bear.  Right  here  is  one  of  the  main  justi- 
fications of  the  cooperative  movement.  The  cooperative  com- 
pany gets  its  business  without  the  expense  of  solicitation. 

STOCK  BETTER  FITTED  FOR  MARKET 

Another  great  advantage  in  cooperation  is  the  control  over 
the  condition  of  the  stock.  It  is  well  known  among  shippers 
that  the  overfeeding  of  stock  at  the  time  of  sale  results  in  less 
weight  at  the  central  market.  Of  course  it  may  weigh  more 
at  the  home  station,  and  in  case  of  sale  to  a local  buyer  there 
is  a little  advantage  gained  by  the  farmer  who  can  outdo  his 
neighbor  in  filling  the  stock.  However,  there  can  be  no  ad- 
vantage to  the  group,  since  the  buyer  has  to  make  allowance 
for  all  shriidvage. 

Where  each  farmer’s  stock  is  sold  separately  it  is  to  his 
advantage  to  get  the  best  weights  in  the  central  market  and 
this  is  done  by  moderate  feeding  on  relativ^ely  dry  feed.  Co- 
operative associations  can  bring  about  this  practice.  Further- 
more, there  is  no  tendency  to  ship  stock  which  for  any  reason 
is  not  likely  to  stand  the  trip  well. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  314 


FIG.  3. DISTINGUISHING  MARKS  AID  COOPERATIVE  MARKETING 

Marks  made  with  shears  make  it  easy  to  separate  the  different  lots  in  a 
shipment.  In  cases  where  the  hogs  are  fairly  uniform  in  quality  marking  is 
not  necessary,  since  separate  sales  need  not  be  asked.  The  returns  may  then 
be  prorated  on  the  basis  of  home  weights. 


MARKING  AND  WEIGHING  HELP  THE  STOCKMAN 

Where  stock  is  to  be  sold  separately  at  the  central  market 
it  is  necessary  to  identify  each  owner’s  shipment.  It  must  be 
marked  so  as  to  be  easily  distinguished.  Many  systems  have 
been  tried,  but  the  use  of  shears  or  clippers  seems  the  most 
satisfactory  except  for  sheep.  In  marking  sheep,  paint  or 
other  colored  fluid  is  generally  used. 

Weighing  the  stock  at  the  home  station  is  done  mainly 
to  give  a reasonable  check  on  the  weight  reported  by  the  rail- 
road and  the  commission  Arm.  Payment  to  the  owner  is  based 
on  the  weights  at  the  central  market  unless  there  is  reason 
to  doubt  the  returns. 

In  case  of  hogs,  and  sometimes  sheep,  instead  of  depending 
on  marks  and  separate  sales,  the  load  is  weighed,  sold  as  a 
unit,  and  the  receipts  prorated.  This  is  the  better  way  where 
there  is  no  appreciable  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  stock. 


W iscoNSiN  Livestock  Shipping  Associations 


13 


Scale  sheets  are  used,  showing  the  number  and  kind  of 
stock,  weights,  marks,  dockage  and  the  like. 

TRANSPORTATION  IS  REGULATED  BY  CONTRACT 

A contract  is  entered  into  between  the  livestock  shipper 
or  shipping  association  and  the  transportation  company,  sup- 
posedly covering  all  details  necessary  for  mutual  protection. 

Regulations  require  the  shipper  to  declare  the  money  value 
of  each  head  of  stock  shipped.  The  valuation  at  present  al- 
lowed is : for  steer,  ox  or  bull,  |75 ; for  cow,  |50 ; for  calf,  |20 ; 
for  hog,  |15 ; for  sheep,  |5.  An  additional  2 per  cent  is  added 
to  the  regular  freight  rate  for  each  50  per  cent,  or  fraction 
thereof,  additional  value  on  each  head,  up  to  and  including 
1800. 

Livestock  contracts  are  made  in  duplicate  or  triplicate  ac- 
cording to  the  road.  The  shipper  receives  the  original  and 
the  freight  agent  retains  the  copy  from  which  he  makes  out 
the  freight  bill. 

Reports  from  53  shipping  associations,  located  in  various 
sections  of  the  state,  show  that  the  average  transportation 
expense,  including  freight  charge,  terminal  charge,  fire  insur- 
ance and  war  tax  for  the  year  1918,  was  |36.52.  Allowing  for 
some  omissions  in  the  reports  received  of  war  tax,  insurance 
and  terminal  charge,  the  average  would  be  about  |38.  For 
mixed  shipments  the  freight  expense  is  from  10  to  25  per  cent 
liigher.  Cooperation  is  the  best  means  of  eliminating  this 
needless  expense.  One  good-sized  comjiany  at  a station  can 
do  wliat  several  competing  buyers  cannot  do  in  making  up 
car  lots  of  one  kind  of  stock. 

Since  transportation  charges  rarely  reqiresent  more  than 
2 per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  stock  in  the  shipment,  they 
should  not  be  considered  the  biggest  factor  in  determiiHng  the 
market  for  cooperative  slii])ments. 

COMMISSION  FIRM  VALUABLE  TO  SHIPPERS 

At  all  great  livestock  markets  there  are  commission  linns 
or  companies  which  receive  tlie  stock,  take  care  of  it  at  the 
yai-ds,  and  act  as  a snles  agency  in  disjxising  of  it  to  the  buyers. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  314 


Many  have  felt  that  the  commission  charge  might  be  dispensed 
with  and  the  stock  sold  by  the  shipper  directly  to  the  buyer, 
but  in  this  plan  are  many  complications,  so  many  that  it  is 
hardly  likely  to  be  put  into  practice. 

In  the  case  of  cooperative  shipments  the  work  of  the  com- 
mission men  has  been  much  more  important  than  with  ordi- 
nary’ shipments.  This  is  true  because  of  the  separate  identifi- 
cation and  sale  of  each  farmer’s  stock,  and  the  detailed  report 
required  in  making  the  returns. 

In  the  spring  of  1920,  the  charge  for  the  extra  labor  in  hand- 
ling cooperative  shipments  was  increased  from  |2  to  a maxi- 
mum of  |7.  While  there  may  be  some  justification  for  this,  the 
cooperative  companies  view  it  as  a very  adequate  reason  for 
the  further  development  of  their  own  cooperative  commission 
establishments,  and,  moreover,  are  undertaking  to  stop  the 
added  charge  by  injunction. 

In  several  of  the  leading  markets  of  the  country,  farmers’ 
organizations  have  established  commission  agencies  of  their 
own.  The  great  advantage  to  be  gained  from  this  is  the 
concentration  of  the  business  into  more  economical  units,  thus 
effecting  a saving. 

FARMER  is  PAID  THROUGH  MANAGER 

After  the  stock  has  been  sold  the  local  manager  receives  a 
draft  from  the  buyer  and  a full  account  from  the  commission 
firm.  In  some  instances  these  returns  show  the  amount  due 
each  farmer.  In  other  cases  the  manager  has  a little  figuring 
to  do.  Within  a week  at  longest,  and  usually  within  four  days 
from  the  time  the  stock  is  shipped,  the  individual  checks  to 
the  farmer  are  ready. 

EXPENSE  OP  COOPERATIVE  SHIPPING  AVERAGES  $93  A CAR 

Returns  received  from  70  shipping  associations  relative  to 
the  expenses  at  the  terminal  market  shows  that  for  selling, 
commission,  yardage,  feed  and  bedding  charges,  the  average 
expense  is  |30  to  the  car.  The  range  of  expense  is  from  $20 
to  |40  a car. 

Returns  received  from  70  shipping  associations  relative  to 
the  home  expenses  show  that  the  average  home  expense,  which 
includes  manager’s  salary,  labor  and  incidental  expenses,  and 


Wisconsin  Livestock  Shipping  Associations 


15 


the  amount  put  into  the  sinking  fund,  amounts  to  |25  a car. 
The  general  average  of  expense  for  shipping  associations  will 
range  from  between  |20  and  |30,  though  there  are  associations 
whose  expenses  are  greater  than  |30  and  some  with  less  than 
$20. 

Therefore,  if  we  take  the  total  freight  expense  as  $38,  the 
average  terminal  market  expense  as  $30,  and  the  average  home 
expense  as  $25,  the  total  average  expense  of  marketing  a car- 
load of  livestock,  based  on  returns  actually  received  from  a 
large  number  of  shipping  associations,  is  found  to  be  $93.  This 
does  not  mean  that  there  will  not  be  a great  variation  from  this 
amount.  It  is  quite  probable  that  the  expense  of  marketing  a 
carload  of  Wisconsin  livestock  will  range  all  the  way  from 
$50  to  $150,  or  from  2%  per  cent  to  71/2  pei*  cent  of  the  value 
of  the  carload.  Shrinkage  has  not  been  included  as  an  ex- 
pense; nevertheless  the  greater  the  shrinkage  incurred,  the 
less  will  be  the  shipper’s  return.  These  figures  show  how 
expensive  it  is : 

Carload  of  70  hogs — 

Home  weight,  17,500  pounds. 

Market  weight,  17,200  pounds. 

Shrinkage,  300  pounds  or  1.7  per  cent. 

3 hundred-weight  at  $15  equals  $45. 

Some  of  the  conditions  influencing  shrinkage  of  livestock 
up  to  the  time  it  is  sold  are: 

1.  Season  of  year  and  weather,  especially  while  in  transit. 

2.  Condition  of  animals. 

3.  Kind  of  feed  given  before  animals  are  loaded. 

4.  Length  of  time  held  off  feed  and  water  before  loading. 

5.  Tlie  kind  of  trip  to  the  shipping  point,  whether  animals 
were  driven  on  foot  or  liauled  in  wagon  or  truck. 

0.  How  the  animals  are  loaded. 

7.  The  length  of  time  in  transit. 

8.  Care  animals  get  while  in  transit. 

9.  Time  of  arrival  at  public  stockyards.  (If  the  stock 
arrives  just  before  being  sold  the  “fill,”  as  a rule,  is  small  and 
the  shrinkage  correspondingly  heavy.) 


IG 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  314 


10.  Weather  conditions  at  the  time  stock  arrives  in  mar- 
ket. 

11.  Condition  of  selling  pens  at  the  market. 

12.  The  method  of  handling  in  feeding,  watering  and  sort- 
ing before  the  animals  are  sold. 

Several  of  the  conditions  are  within  the  control  of  the 
shipper,  railroads,  yards,  company  and  commission  firm,  and 
there  is  no  question  but  that  the  losses  in  shrinkage  could 
be  cut  down  by  many  shipping  associations. 

TUBERCULOSIS  INCREASES  EXPENSE 

Tuberculosis  is  also  an  item  in  the  expense  of  marketing 
livestock.  In  fact,  investigation  shows  that  if  the  losses 
were  distributed  over  the  total  weight  of  hogs  that  arrived 
at  the  Chicago  Stock  Yards  last  year,  the  loss  on  each  hun- 
dredweight would  be  10  to  15  cents. 

Wisconsin  is  making  important  appropriations  for  the  fight 
waged  against  tuberculosis  of  livestock,  there  being  a total 
appropriation  of  almost  |240,000.  Based  on  the  number  of 


TUBERCULOSIS  IN  WISCONSIN  HOGS 

RET 

PER 

CERT 

40 

3S 

30 

25 

20 

IS 

ftINED 

UAAC  irii  1 rn 

FOR 

TUBER- 

CULOSIS 

\ 

520.000 

i 

tA./\ 

l#U«VVU 

120.000 

100.000 

1 

) ■ 

) 

460.000 

f' 

/ 

>■ — ' 

60.000 

40.00^ 

J'' 

420.000 

400.000 

KILLED 

-0-0- 0-0  RETAINED 
♦ • ♦ • PERCENT 

1912  1913  1914  1913  1916  19 

IT 

FIG.  4. SHIPPING  ASSOCIATIONS  SHOULD  GUARD  AGAINST  TUBERCULOSIS 

The  percentage  of  tuberculosis  hogs  is  on  the  increase.  The  upper  curve 
in  the  graph  relates  to  the  figures  in  the  right-hand  column  ; the  two  lower 
curves  relate  to  the  figures  of  the  left-hand  column. 


Wisconsin  Livestock  Shipping  Associations 


17 


Wisconsin  hogs  marketed  in  1918  as  1,900,000  and  considering 
the  average  weight  to  be  that  given  for  the  year  at  South  St. 
Paul  as  248  pounds,  the  loss  in  meat  value  of  the  pork  is  close 
to  |500,000.  Then  there  is  an  indeterminate  loss  due  to  poorer 
quality  of  pork  produced,  and  animals  that  die.  This  is  in 
addition  to  the  enormous  loss  to  the  dairy  industry.  Organiza- 
tions of  farmers  should  help  greatly  in  the  fight  against  tuber- 
culosis. 


Federation  op  Shipping  Associations  Formed 

A national  federation  of  the  shipping  associations  of  the 
United  States  has  recently  been  organized.  There  are  in  the 
country  2,000  to  3,000  local  associations.  They  have  come 
to  stay.  The  question  naturally  arises.  What  can  they  do  as 
a group  to  the  advantage  of  all.  While  it  would  seem  that  in 
the  end  each  will  handle  its  own  stock  up  to  the  time  of 
sale  to  the  packers  or  order  buyers,  there  are  many  preliminary 
matters  demanding  attention.  In  fact,  there  are  now  at  the 
leading  Missouri  River  points  and  at  Denver,  farmers’  co- 
operative commission  firms,  which  are  dealing  with  relations 
to  the  packers,  to  the  railways,  to  sanitary  laws  and  practices, 
to  the  general  improvements  on  the  part  of  farmers  in  regard 
to  livestock,  and  to  methods  of  organizing  and  managing  co- 
operative shipments  in  general. 

The  main  plan  of  procedure  is  through  the  organization  of 
state  federations  of  locals,  which  in  turn  are  to  form  the  units 
of  the  national  federation.  The  possibilities  of  the  federation 
are  very  great. 

Under  the  leadership  of  the  American  Society  of  Equity  the 
livestock  shipping  associations  of  Wisconsin  have  recently 
formed  a state  association.  This  is  a step  in  the  direction 
of  progress  and  should  lead  to  the  solution,  in  some  measure 
at  least,  of  the  stock-selling  ])roblem. 

Livestock  Shipping  Associations  Successful 

Few  farmers’  cooperative  associations  have  been  more 
successful  than  these  dealing  with  the  shipi)ing  of  livestock. 
They  are  simple  in  character;  tliei-e  are  savings  to  be  effected. 
While  a few  shipi)ing  associations  have  in  a sense  failed,  the 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  314 


failures  have  not  been  disastrous.  It  is  merely  that  they 
have  ceased  to  be  active.  Not  much  is  at  stake  since  there  is 
little  capital  invested. 

It  is  hardly  worth  while  to  predict  how  far  the  cooperative 
•handling  of  livestock  may  finally  go.  That  it  will  soon  in- 
clude packing  plants  is  improbable.  That  it  will  reach  to  the 
packing  plants  seems  likely.  Whatever  other  savings  may  be 
possible,  those  within  reach  of  the  cooperative  shipping  asso- 
ciation are  important  and  relatively  easy  to  make.  Moreover, 
with  a solidly  organized  federation  embracing  the  shipping 
interests  of  a whole  state,  or  of  several  states,  it  will  be  much 
easier  to  make  headway  against  other  obstacles,  after  the  most 
immediate  ones  have  been  overcome,  than  it  ever  could  be 
to  .attack  the  more  distant  ones  without  first  taking  care  of 
those  near  at  hand.  The  mere  fact  of  unity  of  action  is  im- 
portant beyong  measure. 

The  most  inefficient  part  of  the  livestock  business  has 
been  between  the  farmer  and  the  packer.  The  packer  is  un- 
doubtedly efficient  and  makes  money  by  his  efficiency.  The 
farmer  may  be  an  efficient  breeder  and  feeder  of  livestock, 
but  in  the  main  he  has  been  weak  in  the  matter  of  marketing. 
The  risk  of  a single  shipment  on  his  own  account,  the  trouble 
of  combining  in  an  unorganized  way  with  his  neighbors,  un- 
familiarity with  the  market — all  these  have  tempted  him  to 
take  the  cash  offered  by  the  local  buyers  rather  than  venture 
into  the  central  markets.  But  while  he  could  not  well  take 
advantage  of  a more  economical  method  of  selling  by  himself 
it  is  not  difficult  to  do  so  as  a member  of  a group.  Coopera- 
tive shipping  associations  first  made  progress  outside  the  main 
livestock  feeding  centers.  Of  late  they  are  increasing  in  great 
numbers  throughout  the  corn  belt. 

Constitution  and  By-Laws  Suggested  for  Cooperative 
Livestock  Shipping  Association 

Though  comparatively  simple  in  form  and  manner  of  co- 
operation, there  are,  nevertheless,  so  many  points  of  impor- 
tance governing  the  success  of  a shipping  association  that,  in 
answer  to  the  questions  continually  arising  about  such  organi- 
zations, a form  of  constitution  and  by-laws  is  given. 


Wisconsin  Livestock  Shipping  Associations 


19 


Constitution 

Article  1.  Name:  The  name  of  this  association  shall  be 


Article  2.  Place:  The  place  of  operation  shall  be  in 

or  any  other  railroad  station  and  vicinity  where  it 

is  deemed  feasible  and  practicable  by  this  association  to  ship  livestock. 

Article  3.  Time:  The  time  over  which  this  association  shall  extend 
shall  be  indefinite. 

Article  4.  Purpose:  The  purpose  of  this  organization  shall  be  to 
obtain  reasonable  prices  and  to  secure  the  best  possible  results  in  the 
marketing  of  livestock. 

Article  5.  Membership:  Any  person  making  use  of  the  shipping 
(or  other)  facilities  of  this  association  shall  be  entitled  to  membership 

by  paying  the  secretary  a membership  fee  of 

for  the  calendar  year  and  by  signing  the  constitution  and  by-laws  of  this 
organization. 

Article  6.  Management:  This  organization  shall  be  managed  by  a 
Board  of  Directors  who  shall  be  elected  at  the  annual  meeting  in  the 
following  manner:  (1  or  2)  for  one  year,  (1  or  2)  for  two  years,  (1,  2 
or  3)  for  three  years  at  the  time  of  commencement.  At  the  expiration 
of  said  terms,  the  directors  shall  be  elected  for  the  term  of  three  years. 
Vacancies  caused  by  resignation  or  otherwise,  shall  be  filed  by  the 
remaining  members  of  the  board.  Members  elected  to  vacancies  shall 
hold  office  for  the  unexpired  term  or  until  new  members  are  elected. 
The  annual  meeting  of  the  board  shall  be  held  directly  after  the 
annual  meeting  of  the  association.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall  appoint 
a manager  who  shall  be  under  their  direct  supervision.  If  such  manager 
is  on  the  Board  of  Directors,  his  place  automatically  becomes  vacant. 
The  Board  of  Directors  shall  decide  on  the  system  of  keeping  the 
accounts  for  the  association  and  shall  provide  for  suitable  auditing 
of  the  manager’s  accounts. 

Article  7.  Officers:  Immediately  after  the  annual  meeting,  the 
Board  of  Directors  shall  elect  by  ballot  from  their  own  members  a 
president,  vice-president  and  a secretary-treasurer.  These  officers  shall 
hold  office  for  one  year  or  until  their  successors  have  been  elected  and 
qualified.  A majority  of  all  votes  cast  shall  be  necessary  for  a choice. 

Article  8.  Amendments:  Amendments  to  this  constitution  may  be 
made  at  any  regular  meeting  by  a two-thirds  vote,  provided  30  days’ 
notice  of  the  same  has  been  given  in  writing  to  the  members. 

Article  9.  Quorum:  A majority  of  the  members  of  the  board  shall 
constitute  a quorum  and  may  do  any  business  that  may  properly  come 
before  said  board. 

Article  10.  Duties  of  officers: 

Section  1.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  president  to  preside  at 
all  meetings  of  the  directors  and  of  the  organization,  to  enforce  a 
due  observance  of  the  constitution,  by-laws  and  rules  of  order. 

Sec.  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  vice-president  to  preside 
when  the  pre.sident  is  ab.sent  and  while  he  shall  have  temporarily 
vacated  the  chair. 

Sec.  3.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  secretary  to  keep  a record 
of  the  proceedings  of  the  directors  and  of  the  organization,  also 
the  name  and  standing  of  each  member,  and  he  shall  on  the  first 
regular  meeting  of  each  year  give  a written  report  of  the  affairs 
pertaining  to  his  office.  It  is  the  secretary’s  duty  to  notify  the 
members  of  the  Board  of  Directors  or  of  the  organization  of  any 
regular  or  special  meetings. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  314 


Sec.  4.  The  secretary  shall  require  from  the  manager,  at  the 
end  of  each  month,  a complete  statement  of  all  the  business 
transactions  for  that  month,  keep  same  on  file  and  report  to  the 
members  of  the  association  at  the  annual  meeting  of  each  year. 

Sec.  5.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  to  keep  all  money 
belonging  to  the  organization,  and  disburse  the  same  under  the 
direction  of  the  organization  according  to  the  laws.  He  shall 
keep  a correct  account  of  all  moneys  received  and  disbursed,  and 
on  the  first  regular  meeting  of  the  year  he  shall  give  a written 
report  regarding  the  same. 

Article  11.  By-laws,  adoption  and  amendment  of : By-laws,  rules 

and  regulations  covering  the  operation  of  this  association  may  be  made 
from  time  to  time  in  the  manner  prescribed  for  the  amendments  to  this 
constitution. 

Article  12.  (When  it  is  desired  to  handle  other  farm  produce.)  This 
association  is  hereby  authorized  to  buy,  ship  and  sell  all  kinds  of 
produce,  such  as  hay,  grain,  straw,  potatoes,  fruit,  etc.,  and  ship  all 
kinds  of  meat  and  carcasses  of  any  slaughtered  animal,  also  including 
poultry  and  stock. 

By-Laws 

(Suggested  for  livestock  shipping  associations  whether  incorporated  or  otherwise.) 

Article  1.  Shipment  of  stock : Shipment  of  stock  in  this  associa- 

tion shall  be  made  regardless  of  membership,  and  the  delivery  of  stock 
to  the  manager  and  acceptance  thereof  by  him  hinds  the  shipper  to 
the  rules  and  by-laws  of  the  association.  All  who  desire  to  ship  stock 
with  the  association  shall  report  to  the  manager  the  kind  of  stock,  the 
number  of  each  kind  and  the  approximate  weight  of  each.  The  com- 
mission to  be  charged  members  and  that  to  be  charged  non-members 
shall  be  fixed  by  the  Board  of  Directors.  When  a sufficient  amount  of 
stock  has  been  reported  to  make  a full  carload,  the  manager  shall  order 
a car  for  making  the  shipment  and  shall  notify  each  person  having 
stock  listed  what  time  the  stock  is  to  be  delivered  for  marking,  weigh- 
ing and  loading.  The  members  agree  to  deliver  stock  listed  for  ship- 
ment at  such  time  and  place  as  the  manager  shall  designate,  unless 
the  shipper  procures  a release  from  the  manager  for  such  delivery. 
When  unable  to  get  a full  carload  within  a reasonable  time,  it  is  the 
manager’s  duty  to  notify  those  who  have  listed  stock  with  him  that  they 
may  be  released  and  sell  elsewhere  if  they  desire.  Failure  to  deliver 
stock  listed  for  shipment  without  having  secured  proper  release  from 
the  manager,  subjects  the  shipper  to  the  liability  of  expulsion  from 
membership.  Or,  if  a non-member,  further  privileges  of  the  association 
may  be  denied. 

Article  2.  The  manager: 

Section  1.  Duties  of  manager.  The  manager  shall  be  at  the 
yard  on  the  day  the  shipment  is  to  be  made,  unless  he  shall 
have  secured  a competent  substitute,  and  shall  receive  all  the 
stock,  and  weigh,  mark  and  load  the  same  on  the  car.  He  shall 
have  charge  of  and  direct  the  sale  of  all  shipments  and  receive 
all  money  therefor,  and  pay  the  shippers,  less  his  commission  or 
salary,  and  all  other  expenses  incurred  in  shipping.  He  shall 
furnish  a statement  to  every  shipper  showing  the  number  of  his 
animals,  the  home  weights,  shrinkage,  net  weights,  prices  received, 
expenses  of  shipment  and  the  net  amount  due.  He  shall  keep  on 
file  all  statements  received  from  commission  firms  selling  live- 
stock for  the  association.  In  a hook  kept  for  that  purpose  he 
shall  record  the  number  of  cars  and  the  amount  and  description 
of  stock  shipped  in  such  cars  during  the  year.  He  shall  keep 
an  account  of  all  disbursements  and  receipts  for  the  association. 


Wisconsin  Livestock  Shipping  Associations 


21 


At  the  annual  meeting  he  shall  have  ready  a detailed  statement 
of  all  business  done  during  the  year. 

Sec.  2.  Compensation  of  manager.  The  manager  shall  receive 
as  compensation  for  his  services  (a)  the  sum  of  5 cents  a 100 
pounds  for  cattle;  7 cents  a 100  pounds  for  hogs,  and  10  cents  a 
100  pounds  for  sheep.  Should  there  be  two  or  more  cars  in  said 
shipment,  the  rate  on  the  additional  cars  shall  be  3 cents  a 100 
pounds  for  cattle,  3%  cents  a 100  pounds  for  hogs,  5 cents  a 100 
pounds  for  sheep,  or  (b)  a flat  rate  as  6 or  7 cents  a 100 
pounds  on  all  classes  of  livestock;  or  (c)  a certain  amount  on 
each  car  ($10  for  the  first  car  and  $5  for  each  additional  car  is 
conceded  to  be  fair),  or  (d)  an  amount  for  each  day,  as  $6,  for  the 
time  spent  in  taking  in,  loading  or  accompanying  to  market  a 
shipment  of  livestock  and  an  amount,  as  $4,  for  time  spent  in  doing 
office  work. 

Sec.  3.  Help  and  material  furnished  manager.  The  associa- 
tion shall,  on  shipping  days,  furnish  extra  help  that  may  be  needed 
in  loading  and  handling  stock,  and  material  needed  in  making 
partitions  to  separate  stock  in  car,  bedding,  nails,  etc.,  used  and 
the  expense  of  the  same  shall  be  deducted  by  the  nianager  from 
the  amount  received  from  such  shipment  for  the  operating  or 
smking  fund  of  the  association.  The  association  shall  provide 
the  manager  with  railroad  fare  when  obliged  to  pay  same  in 
returning  from  market. 

Sec.  4.  Manager’s  bond.  The  manager  shall  give  a bond  which 
shall  be  approved  by  the -Board  of  Directors  ($3,000  to  $5,000  is 
usual).  Said  bond  shall  be  for  tbe  favorable  discharge  of  his 
duties. 

Article  3.  Compen.sation  of  directors : The  directors  shall  receive 
as  compensation  a salary  of  $3  a day  and  4 cents  a mile  for  distance 
exceeding  10  miles  traveled  in  attending  meetings,  to  be  paid  out  of  the 
operating  and  sinking  fund. 

Article  4.  Sec.  1.  Operating  and  .sinking  fund:  From  the  proceeds 

of  the  association  there  shall  be  set  aside  a sufficient  per  cent  (not  to 
exceed  2 per  cent  usually)  to  pay  all  salaries,  mileage  and  incidental  ex- 
penses, and  the  balance  which  is  left  shall  be  set  aside  as  an  operating 
and  sinking  fund  to  pay  losses  on  any  stock  from  the  time  it  comes 
into  the  hands  of  the  manager  until  final  disposition  is  made  of  it. 

Sec.  2.  Losses,  how  paid.  If,  in  .spite  of  all  precautions,  it 
should  be  found  that  the  stock  of  any  shipper  has  been  killed 
or  injured  while  in  the  hands  of  the  manager  or  en  route  to  its 
destination,  and  the  accident  is  not  the  fault  of,  or  chargeable 
against,  tbe  railroad  company  or  other  parties,  then  such  loss 
shall  be  paid  out  of  the  operating  or  sinking  fund  of  the  associa- 
tion. Payment  of  the  loss  shall  be  based  on  a statement  made  by 
the  commission  firm  having  charge  of  the  shipment,  which  state- 
ment shall  show  the  amount  received  for  the  dead  or  injured 
animal,  and  the  amount,  in  their  opinion,  it  would  have  brought 
had  it  not  been  injured.  This  statement  shall  be  the  final  basis 
for  the  settlement.  No  damage  shall  be  paid  for  an  animal  which 
was  not  in  healthy  condition  when  received  at  the  local  yards  by 
the  manager. 

Article  5.  Unhealthy  stock:  All  stock  which  must  be  sold  subject 
to  inspection,  except  such  as  has  been  injured  while  in  a healthy  con- 
dition and  in  charge  of  the  manager,  or  any  diseased  animal,  shall  be 
received  at  the  owner’s  risk,  and  he  shall  receive  payment  therefor 
according  to  the  returns  made  by  the  commission  firm,  less  the  pro 
rata  expense  on  the  shipment. 


22 


^yISCONSIN  Bulletin  314 


Article  6.  Meetings:  The  regular  annual  meeting  of  the  association 


shall  be  held  on  the day  of at 

o’clock,  at Special  meetings  may  be  called  by 


the  Board  of  Directors  at  any  time  by  giving  10  days’  written  notice  to 
all  members.  On  the  written  request  of  25  per  cent  of  the  members  to 
the  Board  of  Directors  a special  meeting  shall  be  called,  and  all  the 
members  given  ten  days’  written  notice. 

Article  7.  A Board  of  Audit,  composed  of  three  members,  shall  be 
elected  by  the  members  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  organization.  The 
board  shall  meet  semi-annually  and  audit  the  books  of  the  organization, 
a full  report  of  which  shall  be  made  at-  the  next  annual  meeting. 

Article  8.  Amendments  to  these  by-laws  may  be  made  in  the  same 
manner  as  amendments  to  the  constitution. 

Article  9.  Appropriation  of  money:  A vote  of  two-thirds  of  all  the 
members  present  shall  be  required  to  pass  on  any  appropriation  of 
money  by  the  association  other  than  for  its  necessary  contingent  ex- 
penses. 

Article  10.  Quorum:  One-half  of  the  members  shall  constitute  a 
quorum.  IJroxy  voting  shall  not  be  permitted. 

Article  11.  Any  member  who  shall  let  his  account  with  the  or- 
ganization go  unsettled  for  more  than  one  year  loses  his  membership 
in  the  organization. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


[the  President  of  the  University 
iH.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and^Director 


jW.  A.  HenrYj  Emeritus  Agriculture 
|S.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chemistry 

I A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 
I Mary  G.  Arbogast,  Home  Economics 
!F.  a.  Aust,  Horticulture 
'B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 
'T.  L.  Bewick,  Agr.  Extension 
G.  Bohstedt,  Animal  Husbandry 
T.  Campion,  Assistant  State  Leader  of  County 
Agents 

L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 
May  Cowles,  Home  Economics 

E.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 
iT.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 
Bernice  Dodge,  Home  Economics 

J.  S.  Donald,  Agr,  Economics 

F.  W.  Ddffee,  Agr.  Engineering 

E.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy  Hus 
bandry 

E.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
W.  F.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
.1.  G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  .T.  Geib,  Soils 

E.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

F.  B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterinary  Science 

J.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry 
P.  N.  Harmer,  Soils 

E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chemistry 

E.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Bacteriology 

K.  L.  Hatch,  Agr.  Education 
C.  S.  Hean,  Agr.  Library 

B.  H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Economics 
Ellen  Hillstrom,  Home  Economics 
A.  W,  Hopkins,  Editor ; in  charge  of  Agr. 
Journalism 

R.  S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Animal  Hus- 
bandry 

J.  A.  .Tames,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Education 

A.  G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
J.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

E.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Engineering 

L.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pathology 
Nellie  Kedx.ie  Jones,  Home  Economics 

G.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
E.  J.  Kraus,  Plant  Pathology 
Jean  Krueger.  Home  Economics 

B.  D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

E.  W.  Lindstrom,  Genetics 

E.  L.  Luther,  Field  Supervisor  of  Extension 
Courses  and  Schools 

T.  Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 
Hazel  Manning,  Home  Economics 
Abby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home  Eco 
nomics 

J,  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 

J,  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticulture 

M.  Moore,  Assistant  State  Leader  of  County 
Agents 

R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

F.  R.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 


K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Extension  Service 
F.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Station 


G.  B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

F.  L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  F.  Potter,  Horticulture 
M.  C.  Riley,  Agr.  Economics 
Dorothy  Roberts,  Home  Economics 
R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 

J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 

H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 

A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 

W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  .Journalism 

J.  SwENEHART,  Agr.  Engineering  (Bayfield) 

E.  M.  Tiffany,  Agr.  Education 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

H.  W.  Ullsperger,  Soils  (Sturgeon  Bay) 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic  En 
tomology 

J.  F.  WoJTA,  State  Leader  of  Agricultural  Rep- 
resentatives 

A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 

W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 

J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Bacteriology,  Agr.  Chero 
istry 

Freda  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
Gladys  Baker,  Agr.  Journalism 
R.  M.  Bethke,  Genetics 

J.  W.  Brann,  Horticulture,  Plant  Pathology 
O.  R.  Brunkow,  Agr.  Chemistry 
A.  J.  Cramer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
^Marguerite  Davis,  Home  Economics 
G.  R.  B.  Elliott,  Agr.  Engineering 
J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 
C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 
W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

C.  A.  IIoppERT,  Agr.  Chemistry 

O.  N.  .Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  .Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

A.  E.  Koehler,  Agr.  Chemistry 

S.  J..RPKOVSKY,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Marie  Lottes,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
J.  L.  TjUSH,  Genetics 

E.  J.  Malloy,  Soils 

S.  W.  Mendum,  Agr.  Economics 

R.  O.  Nafziger,  Agr.  Journalism 

E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

F.  X.  Ritger,  Executive  Secretary 
J.  R.  SCHLICHER,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Mariana  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 

P.  H.  Se.nn,  Genetics 

S.  W.  Shear,  Agr.  Economics 

V.  A.  Tied.tens,  Agronomy 

W.  B.  Tisdale,  Plant  J’athology 
C.  E.  Walsh,  Agr.  Engineering 


..T 

l^b 


Bulletin  315 


June,  1920 


~ oiHI  '* 


ermiiE 


tin  Iff 


Cottage  Clhi#^^'® 


I )KiEST 

Creameries  should  turn  sl’immilk  and  hutter  milJc  into  marJcetahie 
products.  There  is  an  increasina;'  deiiiaiid  for  cottage  cheese^  and  biit- 
terinilk  cheese.  * Page  3.. 

Methods  of  manufacturing  cottage  cheese  differ,  depending  on  local 
conditions.  In  any  method,  however,  it  is  advisable  to  use  vats  instead 
of  cans  for  souring,  and  to  pasteurize  the  skiinmilk.  In  ripening  the 
milk  and  cutting  the  curd  the  aim  should  he  to  get  a flaky  product  rather 
than  a fine-grained  or  pulpy  mass.  Pages  3-0. 

Draining  raclxS  should  he  u-^ed  to  supplement  the  'cat  strainer  for 
draining  olf  both  the  whey  and  the  cold  water  used  in  washing.  A 
draining  rack  and  special  strainers  may  he  made  without  much  trou- 
ble. Pages  6-11. 

Creameries  should  find  a market  for  their  product  before  beginning 
to  manufacture  large  quantities  of  cottage  cheese.  The  kind  of  con- 
tainer used  depends  somewhat  upon  the  type  of  market.  Page  11. 

Practical  methods  of  making  huttermilk  cheese  have  been  devised 
at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.  ^Nlade  from  good,  fresh,  clean- 
flavored  cream,  it  is  equal  in  flavor  to  cottage  cheese.  Page  12. 

Cheese  mag  he  made  from  ordinarg  raic-cream  huttermilk  or  from 
pasteurized  milk.  A steam-heated  container  is  used  and  the  huttermilk 
is  heated  rapidly  up  to  130°  or  1K1°.  Pages  12-14. 

Sufficient  draining  is  importa'nt  in  making  huttermilk  cheese,  other- 
wise the  curd  will  separate  in  the  package  and  the  tub  may  leak.  Cheese 
drained  too  dry  may  be  moistened  to  the  desired  consistency. 

Pages  14-16. 

Buttermilk  cheese  find.^  a gcjod  market  when  it  is  brought  to  the 
attention  of  the  retailer  or  the  consumer.  • Page  16. 


Cottage  Cheese  and  Buttermilk  Cheese: 
Their  Manufacture  and  Sale. 

J.  L.  Sam  MIS 

Cottage  cheese  and  buttermilk  cheese  are  jirofitahle  side  lines  for 
the  creanierv.  There  is  am  increasing  demand  from  the  consumer 
for  these  appetizing  dairy  by-products.  More  efficient  creamery 
management  demands  that  skimniilk  and  buttermilk  he  turned  into 
marketable  products. 

THE  MAKIXG  OF  COTTAGE  CHEESE 

V'ariations  in  many  of  the  details  of  manufacture  are  seen  at 
different  factories,  depending  on  local  conditions,  the  amount  of 
help  available,  and  the  experience  of  the  maker.  Good  quality 
and  uniformity  of  product  are  always  desirable.  Speed  is  especi- 
ally necessary  in  some  factories  and  it  is  always  necessary  to  get  the 
cheese  out  of  the  vat  in  time  to  receive  the  next  lot  of  skimniilk 
from  the  separator.  Some  makers  find  it  more  convenient  to  finish 
the  cheese  late  in  the  afternoon ; others  prefer  to  finish  it  the  next 
morning.  At  creameries  where  the  available  floor  space  is  limited  it 
is  an  advantage  to  drain  the  curd,  salt,  and  finish  the  cheese  in  the 
vat  (see  method  3)  without  the  use  of  a curd  rack  or  cloth.  Some- 
times an  order  for  cottage  cheese  must  be  filled  quickly,  so  that  it 
may  be  shipped  on  the  next  train,  and  the  most  rapid  methods  of 
handling  materials  must  be  used. 

Chiefly  for  these  reasons,  methods  of  manufacture  dilfer,  and  the 
maker  should  strive  to  understand  the  reason  for  the  results  of  each 
method  employed,  so  that  he  can  be  successful  with  any  method. 

Fsi:  Vats  I xs'i  ead  of  Caxs 

Instead  of  souring  the  milk  in  cans,  it  is  better  to  use  an  ordinai-y 
cheese  vat,  which  can  be  heated  by  running  steam  into  the  jacket. 
A tall,  cylindrical  strainer  fitting  inside  the  vat  next  to  the  gate 
should  be  ])urchased  with  the  vat.  In  case  of  necessity,  cottage 
cheese  can  be  made  in  a container  without  a jacket,  healing  the 
curdled  milk  by  adding  hot  water  to  it  while  stirring  with  a wooden 
rake. 

d'he  older  styles  of  cheese  vats  are  made  with  level  botioms  and 
require  to  be  tipped  with  the  gate  end  down  dui-ing  the  draining  of 


4 


Wiscoxsi-V  Bulletin  310 


the  curd.  In  the  newer  vats,  the  bottoms  are  made  with  consider- 
able fall  toward  the  gate  end,  so  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  tip  the 
vat  for  draining. 


Pasteukizatiox  Is  Desirable 

Skimmilk  for  cheese-making  may  well  be  pasteurized,  because  it 
makes  the  product  more  sanitary  and  often  improves  its  flavor  and 
keeping  quality.  Where  whole  milk  is  pasteurized  before  separat- 
ing, both  the  cream  and  the  skimmilk  are  benefited.  Much  cottage 
cheese  is  still  made  from  raw  milk  at  creameries  not  provided  with 
means  of  pasteurization.  With  pasteurized  skimmilk,  a little  more 
starter  may  be  required  for  souring  than  with  raw  milk,  but  other- 
wise the  process  is  the  same.  For  making  cottage  cheese  the  pas- 
teurization should  be  at  145°  to  165°,  rather  than  at  185°,  since  the 
latter  temperature  may  cause  the  curd  to  be  fine-grained  instead  of 
flaky  and  coarse. 

IiiPEXixG  THE  Skimmilk 

The  skimmilk  is  run  from  the  separator  or  the  pasteurizer  into 
the  cheese  vat.  If  it  is  planned  to  make  up  and  pack  the  cottage 
cheese  on  the  same  afternoon,  it  is  necessary  to  add  from  5 to  10 
per  cent,  or  more,  of  good  creamery  starter  to  the  sweet  milk.  If 
it  is  desired  to  make  and  pack  the  cheese  early  the  next  morning, 
from  2 to  5 per  cent  of  starter  will  be  sufficient,  or  perhaps  none  at 
all  may  be  necessary. 

Pour  the  starter  into  the  vat  through  a metal  strainer  to  break  up 
the  lumps,  stirring  the  milk  constantly.  Heat  the  milk  to  about 
90°*  or  100°,  or  a little  lower,  cover  the  vat,  and  leave  quiet  until 
sour  and  thick. 

Over-ripe  milk  will,  of  course,  need  little  or  no  starter.  The 
amount  of  starter  and  the  temperature  used  for  ripening  will  be 
varied  by  the  maker  to  suit  the  case.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the 
milk  become  sour  and  thick  only  a few  houi-s  before  it  is  used 
for  making  cheese,  for  with  very  old,  sour  material,  a disagreeable, 
rank  flavor  in  the  curd  is  likely  to  result.  With  very  high  acid,  the 
curd  breaks  into  slow-draining,  fine  powder  more  readily  during 
the  stirring  or  cutting,  and  tends  to  produce  a cheese  of  toiigli, 
sandy,  consistency. 


*A11  the  temperatures  given  are  in  degrees  Fahrenheit. 


Cottage  Cheese  axd  Buttermilk  CifEESE 


5 


The  temperature  at  which  the  milk  is  left  to  ripen  is  ot  import- 
ance, because  if  too  cold,  or  if  in  a cold  room,  the  milk  cools  down 
rapidly  and  the  ripening  will  go  on  more  slowly.  Bacteria  grow 
more  rapidly  at  warmer  temperatures  up  to  100°.  if  the  milk  is 
not  thick  by  the  time  wanted,  the  next  day  it  should  be  set  at  a 
warmer  temperature  to  ripen,  or  the  vat  should  be  covered  so  that 
the  milk  will  not  cool  so  rapidly,  or  more  starter  should  be  added. 

The  temperature  of  the  thickened  milk  next  morning  is  of  im- 
portance because  with  curd  at  65°  to  70°,  more  heating  and  longer 
stirring  are  necessary  to  heat  the  curd  to  the  final  cheese-making 
temperature,  than  if  it  had  been  at  80°  or  90°  when  cut.  The  extra 
stirring  of  the  cold  curd  tends  to  break  it  up  very  fine,  which  is  to 
be  avoided  if  possible.  At  the  Wisconsin  Dairy  School  we  prefer  to 
set  the  milk  at  90°  to  100°  in  a warm  room  or  with  a vat  well 
covered  and  protected,  so  that  the  curd  when  ready  to  cut  is  at 
80°  to  90°,  thus  requiring  less  heating  and  consequently  less  stirring 
during  the  heating  process,  leaving  the  curd  in  larger  particles  or 
flakes. 

CuTTixG  THE  Curd 

W'hen  the  milk  is  thick  and  the  maker  is  ready  to  finish  the  cheese, 
the  curd  may  be  cut  into  cubes  with  cheesemaker’s  curd  knives. 
Some  makers  prefer  to  use  a wooden  rake,  which  is  moved  slowly 
back  and  forth  through  the  curd  to  break  it  into  rather  large  flakes, 
but  not  beat  it  into  a smooth  pulp  or  into  fine  grains. 

While  the  cheese  is  being  stirred  gently  but  continuously  (after 
cutting  with  the  knives,  if  used),  the  steam  is  turned  into  the  jacket 
and  the  material  heated  to  the  temperature  selected  without  delay. 
The  stirring  must  be  done  gently  to  avoid  breaking  up  the  curd,  l)ut 
continuously  to  avoid  overheating  part  of  the  curd  on  the  l)ottom 
of  the  vat,  and  to  keep  all  ])arts  of  the  curd  at  as  uniform  a tem- 
perature as  possible,  d'he  length  of  time  from  cutting  until  the 
drawing  of  the  whey  may  be  about  an  hour,  but  the  size  of  the  curd 
particles  and  the  tomperatui-e  lo  which  the  curd  was  heated  will 
largely  determine  how  fast  the  curd  will  become  firm. 

The  Choice  of  a Te.m FERA'i'niE  axd  iMETiioD  of  IfAXDLixo 

The  choice  of  a temperature  and  method  must  be  made  by  each 
cheese-maker  to  suit  his  requirements,  so  that  this  work  will  fit  in 
convenientlv  with  his  other  duties. 


G 


Wiscoxsix  Bulletix^  315 


• Method  1.  If  after  cutting,  the  vat  is  heated  only  to  90°  to  91°, 
the  curd  is  likely  to  be  quite  soft  after  2 hours’  time.  If  then  put 
on  the  cloth,  it  may  be  left  for  several  hours  or  half  a day  to  drain 
and  cool  before  salting,  without  danger  of  becoming  too  dry.  This 
process  is  slower  than  method  2. 

Method  2.  If  the  curd  after  cutting  is  heated  to  100°  to  105°, 
it  will  be  firmer  at  the  end  of  an  hour  than  if  a lower  final  tempera- 
ture had  been  used,  and  it  may  need  to  be  cooled  on  the  draining 
cloth  by  running  on  a little  cold  water  from  a hose.  As  soon  as 
cooled  and  drained,  the  curd  is  salted  and  packed. 

Method  3.  A curd  heated  to  115°  to  120°  after  cutting  will  be- 
come firm  sooner  than  if  at  a lower  temperature,  and  in  half  an 
hour  to  one  hour’s  time  it  is  likely  to  be  so  firm  that  immediately 
after  drawing  the  whey,  the  curd  must  be  cooled  quickly  with  cold 
water  to  70°  or  lower,  to  prevent  its  becoming  too  dry  and  tough. 
This  method  is  the  most  rapid,  and  avoids  the  use  of  a curd  rack 
and  cloth,  since  the  curd  is  cooled,  drained  and  salted  in  the  vat. 
But  it  requires  a supply  of  cold  water  in  cans,  ready  for  use. 

A curd  heated  to  still  higher  temperatures  may  become  firm  so 
rapidly  and  need  such  quick  cooling  with  water  that  it  is  difficult 
to  do  the  work  fast  enough  in  a large  vat  of  curd. 

Details  of  the  Draixixg  Process 

Before  starting  to  draw  whey  from  the  vat,  it  is  always  an  ad- 
vantage to  push  the  curd  with  the  rake  gently  and  slowly  away  from 
the  gate  end  of  the  vat,  stirring  up  the  curd  as  little  as  possible  in 
doing  so.  Insert  the  vat  strainer  above  the  gate,  inside  the  vat. 
Let  the  whey  become  perfectly  quiet,  and  then  open  the  gate  slowly, 
allowing  the  clear  whey  to  run  out,  but  not  so  rapidly  as  to  wash 
down  masses  of  curd  around  the  strainer  and  clog  ih 

In  methods  1 and  2,  as  soon  as  all  the  whey  is  out  of  the  vat  that 
will  run  out  readily,  the  curd  and  remaining  whey  are  dipped  with 
a scoop  or  fiat-sided  curd  pail  from  the  vat  to  the  draining  cloth  on 
the  rack.  A draining  rack  can  readily  be  made  by  any  handy  man 
or  carpenter. 

The  curd  is  left  on  the  cloth  until  the  curd  is  judged  to  be  firm 
enough  for  salting,  with  occasional  stirring,  if  necessary,  by  lifting 
the  cloth  at  the  corners.  By  this  time  the  curd  should  be  cool,  and 
if  it  has  not  cooled  at  the  temperature  of  the  room,  cold  water 
should  be  run  over  the  curd,  stirring  it  up  by  hand,  so  as  to  cool 
every  part  and  keep  the  curd  from  becoming  drier. 


fk;.  1.  A i)R\ixiX(;  RACK  snrrABLE  for  a lar<;I':  crkamkky 

The  rack  is  shown  with  tiie  front  si<l(*  raised  so  that  the  three  essential  parts  may 

be  seen. 


Cottage  Cheese  axd  Buttermilk  Cheese  7 

How  TO  Construct  the  Draining  Back 

The  draining  rack  slionld  have  about  one  scjiiare  foot  of  di-ainiiuT 
surface  for  each  100  pounds  of  skimniilk  handled  or  for  each  10 
pounds  of  curd  to  be  drained  at  a time.  The  area  of  the  bottom 
may  be  made  about  half  as  large  as  the  bottom  of  the  cheese  vat 
used,  and  the  sides  of  the  rack  should  lie  about  one-half  as  high  as 
the  vat  is  deep.  To  make  a draining  rack  with  as  little  work  as 
possible,  take  a wooden  box  about  one  foot  in  depth  and  remove  the 
top  and  bottom,  leaving  the  sides  joined  together.  For  the  board 
bottom  substitute  a piece  of  half-inch  mesh,  galvanized  iron  wire 
netting,  which  may  be  fastened  by  means  of  staples.  This  rack  is 
set  on  blocks  or  short  legs  to  raise  it  a few  inches  above  the  fiooiy 
but  low  enough  so  that  it  will  pass  under  the  gate  of  the  vat  in 
which  the  cheese  is  made.  A movable  cover  is  made  from  the 
remaining  boards. 

A more  substantial  draining  rack  for  use  in  a large  creamery 
(tig.  1)  can  be  made  in  this  manner:  Make  a square  frame  with 

mortised  joints  of  2"  x 4"  dressed  lumber  and  fasten  the  wire  net- 


ting on  top  with  staples,  d’his  is  the  bottom  of  the  draining  rac'k. 
A little  sti’i-j')  of  molding  is  jnit  around  tin*  outside  of  this  fi-ame  on 
toj)  to  prevent  the  upjier  half  from  slipping  out  of  place.  4'b(‘ 


8 


Wiscoxsix  Btli.ktjx  olo 


upper  half  is  marie  of  2"  x 12"  dressed  lumber  mortised  and  spiked 
at  the  corners.  A lio-ht  wooden  frame  made  of  1”  by  2"  lumber, 
with  mnslin  or  dnek  tacked  on.  forms  the  lid  for  the  draining  rack. 
To  prevent  the  absorption  of  water  the  wooden  parts  should  be 
given  two  or  three  coatings  of  raw  linseed  oil  before  they  are  nailed 
together.  Thus  treated,  the  rack  will  last  several  years. 

A piece  of  cheesecloth  of  good  quality  is  used  to  cover  the  sides 
and  bottom  of  the  rack  and  to  hold  the  curd  while  draining.  If  it 
is  necessary  to  sew  two  widths  of  cloth  together,  lap  the  edges 

about  one  inch,  so  as  to  lie  flat  when  in  use.  and  sew  two  seams 

about  half  an  inch  apart  along  the  lap. 

Duaixixg  the  Curd  ix  the  Vat 

A curd  which  has  been  heated  to  115°  to  120°  (method  3)  is 
likely  to  be  so  firm  in  one-half  to  one  hour  after  cutting  that  it  is 
ready  to  drain,  cool  and  salt  without  further  delay.  This  can  be 

done  in  the  vat,  and  no  draining  cloth  or  rack  is  necessary.  When 

the  curd  is  well  firmed  before  the  whey  is  drawn  it  settles  well  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vat,  and  stays  there,  showing  little  tendency  to  float 
down  around  the  strainer  and  clog  it.  The  firm  curd  also  remains 
quite  open  and  porous  on  the  vat  bottom,  permitting  all  loose  whey 
to  drain  rapidly  out.  With  the  wooden  rake,  a ditch  is  made  down 
the  middle  of  the  pile  of  curd,  starting  from  the  gate  end,  which 
helps  to  hasten  the  draining.  Very  soon  after  the  whey  is  out,  and 
before  the  hot  curd  has  had  time  to  become  tough,  cold  water  is 
poured  from  cans  into  the  vat  of  curd,  in  quantity  equal  to  about 
one-quarter  or  one-third  of  the  weight  of  milk  used,  so  as  to  cover 
the  curd  with  water.  The  curd  is  then  stirred  well  with  the  rake, 
teeth  down,  so  as  to  break  up  all  lumps,  and  cool  all  parts  of  the 
curd.  At  the  time  of  drawing  the  whey,  the  steam  valve  for  heat- 
ing the  vat  should  be  shut  off  or  disconnected,  so  as  to  avoid  the 
leaking  of  steam  into  the  jacket,  and  any  hot  water  should  be  drawn 
out  of  the  jacket. 

The  curd  in  the  cold  water  is  allowed  to  settle  and  is  pushed  back 
from  the  gate.  The  vat  strainer  is  inserted  and  the  water  drawn 
'off.  The  curd  is  ditched  down  the  middle  (fig.  2)  and  it  may  be 
iStirred  somewhat  with  the  rake.  The  curd  drains  rapidly  and  is 
i?oon  ready  to  salt.  Add  one  and  one-quarter  to  one  and  one-half 
pounds  of  salt  for  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  curd,  and  stir  it  in 
evenly.  All  this  salt  should  remain  in  the  cheese,  which  is  now 


Cottage  Cheese  axd  Buttekmilk  Cheese 


[) 


read}'  to  pack.  About  sixteen  pounds  of  cheese  are  obtained  from 
100  ])ounds  of  skimmilk.  Little  or  no  whey  is  expelled  by  the  salt. 


the  vat  and  away  from  the  strainer.  This  allows  water  to  drain  away  rapidly. 


Aids  for  Draixtxg  Crim  Bapidly 
Wlien  draining  whey  from  a -large  mass  of  curd,  as  when  it  is 
made  from  ^.bOO  to  5,000  pounds  of  skimmilk  in  one  vat,  the  work 
may  be  hastened  by  using  a larger  draining  surface  than  is  afforded 
by  the  cylindrical  vat  strainer.  '’Hie  draining  surface  may  be  in- 
creased 1)V  using  a flat  strainer  of  wood  or  wire  netting,  or  a trough- 
shaped strainer  running  the  entire  length  of  the  vat,  putting  one  of 
these  special  strainers  in  ])lace  as  soon  as  the  bulk  of  tlie  wliey  has 
been  drawn  out  tliroiigh  the  tin  strainer  and  when  it  begins  to  clog 
with  curd  ]»artic]es. 

Such  a special  strainer  may  consist  of  a board  with  many  % or 
VL'  inch  holf'S  bored  in  it,  or  a frame  covei-ed  witli  inch  wire 

netting.  'The  board  or  frame  is  made  to  tit  across  the  l)ottom  of 
the  vat,  near  the  gate.  The  curd  back  of  it  can  be  stirred  with  the 
rake  much  more  effc'ctively  than  can  be  done  by  >tirring  the  curd 
around  the  cvlindrii  al  strainer  bv  hand. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  315 


FIG.  3.  ADDITIONAL  STRAINERS  HASTEN  DRAINAGE 
To  increase  the  draining  surface  the  flat  strainer  of  board  with  holes  bored  in  it 
may  be  fitted  across  the  bottom  of  the  vat  near  the  gate. 

With  the  trough  strainer  in  place,  the  curd  at  the  back  end  of  the 
vat  drains  as  rapidly  as  that  near  the  gate,  and  the  curd  on  both 
sides  of  the  trough  may  be  stirred  with  the ‘rake. 


FIG  4.  WIRE  NETTING  ON  A FRA.ME  MAKES  A CONVENIENT  STRAINER 
Either  the  strainer  which  fits  across  the  bottom  of  the  vat  (A)  or  the  trough  strainer 
(B)  may  be  used  to  supplement  the  cylindrical  vat  strainer  in 
draining  a large  mass  of  curd. 


Any  curd  drains  more  rapidly  aftt'r  cooling  with  cold  water  than 
.while  covered  with  hot  wIkt,  and  the  liiial  draining  off  of  the  cold 


Cottage  Cheese  and  BuTTEiniiLK  Cheese 


11 


wash  water  (method  3)  is  usually  accomplished  much  more  quickly 
and  completely  than  could  be  done  in  draining  off  the  hot  whey. 
Therefore,  when  difficulty  is  experienced  in  removing  the  last  of  the 
hot  whe}q  the  cold  water  may  be  added  while  there  is  yet  consider- 
able whey  left  on  the  curd,  so  as  to  cool  tiie  curd  and  save  time  in 
the  final  draining. 

A fine-grained  curd  is  always  more  difficult  to  drain,  and  care 
sliould  be  used,  in  stirring  curd  after  cutting,  not  to  break  it  up 
into  fine,  sandy  particles. 

Marketing  the  Product 

Cheese  can  be  packed  in  60-pound  tubs  with  dry  liners  or  in  tin 
cans  for  shipment;  in  moisture-proof  single  service  containers  for 
the  retail  trade;  or,  more  cheaply  sold,  in  thin  wooden  plates  or 
paper  ice  cream  or  oyster  pails,  if  the  retailer  has  time  to  weigh  it 
out  at  the  counter. 

Creameries  are  advised  to  find  a suitable  market  for  their 
products  before  beginning  to  manufacture  large  quantities  of 
cottage  cheese  as  it  is  sometimes  hard  to  sell  at  a profitable  figure. 

Cottage  cheese  in  tubs  may  be  cooled  to  32°  or  below,  and  kept 
frozen  for  several  months  until  needed.  iMixing  in  a little  fresh 
cheese  when  taking  out  the  stored  product  may  improve  its  flavor 
slightly  for  sale  to  the  consumers. 

THE  ilAKIXG  OF  BUTTEinilLK  CHEESE 

■For  many  years  it  was  thought  practically  impossible  to  utilize 
})ure  buttermilk  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese  because  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  collecting  the  curd  and  draining  off'  the  whey.  These 
difficulties  were  ovei-come  by  methods  devised  at  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station. 

Experience  with  buttermilk  cheese  has  shown  that  when  the 
buttermilk  used  is  from  good,  fresh,  clean-flavored  cream,  the  flavor 
of  the  buttermilk  cheese  is  attractive  and  eipial  to  that  of  good 
cottage  cheese. 

Skimmilk  is  usually  less  than  24  hours  fi-om  the  cow  when  turned 
into  cottage  cheese,  while  buttenuilk  from  hand  separator  cream  is 
for  the  most  part,  at  least  48  or  12  boui-s  old  when  used  for  making 
butti'rmilk  cb(‘cse.  For  this  reason,  any  unclean  flavors  present  are 
likely  to  be  more  highly  developed  in  huttermilk  cheese  than  in 
cottage  cheese  under  ordinary  creamery  conditions,  and  this  fact 
should  not  be  overlooked  by  prospective  manufacturers. 


12 


WiSCOXSIX  B CL  LET  IX  315 


Butteumilk  Cheese  axd  Cottage  Cheese  Compared 

ButteriDilk  cheese  is  always  smooth  and  fine-grained,  so  that  with 
the  addition  of  a little  water  it  can  be  rubbed  instantly  to  a creamy 
consistency.  Unlike  over-dried  cottage  cheese,  it  can  be  moistened 
when  drier  than  desirable  by  stirring  in  a little  clean,  cold  water, 
which  will  be  completely  absorbed  and  retained.  The  smooth 
texture  of  the  cheese  and  its  buttermilk  flavor  give  it  a rich  appear- 
ance and  quality,  and  make  unnecessary  the  addition  of  cream  or 
milk  to  the  finished  product. 


FIG.  5.  A COXYEXIENT  HOME-MADE  DEVICE 
A milk  can  may  be  used  for  heating  the  buttermilk  and  a home-made  coil  of  steam 
pipes  is  a great  convenience  in  this  process. 


In  its  manufacture  the  buttermilk  is  regularly  heated  for  an  hour 
or  more  to  130'’  or  140*’,  or,  if  preferred,  to  150  or  160  . ithout 
producing  any  undesirable  effects  upon  the  texture  or  moisture  con- 
tent of  the  cheese,  the  higher  temperature  insures  thorough  pasteur- 
ization and  the  absence  of  disease-producing  bacteria. 

Cheese  fuom  Okdixauy  Iiaw-Ckea:^!  Betteiem ilk 

Xo  difficulty  will  be  found  in  making  buttermilk  cheese  at 
creameries  where  the  cream  is  either  pasteurized  while  sweet  or  not 
pasteurized  at  all.  The  method  em])loyed  is  practically  the  same  as 


Cottage  Cheese  axd  Butteumilk  Cheese 


i;; 


tliat  used  on  the  farm.  The  buttermilk  is  run  directly  from  the 
churn  into  any  convenient  container  to  which  heat  can  be  applied. 
The  wash-water  from  the  butter  is  not  added.  A steam-heated 
cheese  vat,  cream  ripener,  or  starter  can  is  suitable.  A tin-lined 
cream  vat  or  an  old  weigh-can  may  be  used,  but  it  will  be  necessary 
to  provide  a heating  coil,  which  may  be  made  of  two  or  three  turns 
of  half-inch  galvanized  or  black  iron  steam  pipe.  A coil  used  for 
lieating  loO  pounds  of  buttermilk  in  a milk  can  is  shown  in  fig.  5. 
Any  container  too  heavy  to  tip  to  pour  out  the  whey  and  curd, 
should  be  provided  with  a gate  for  an  outlet.  ' 

Heat  the  Butteijmilk  to  130°  to  140° 

As  soon  as  the  buttermilk  is  in  the  vat,  and  usually  before  the 
butter  is  salted,  it  is  convenient  to  heat  the  buttermilk  as  rapidly  as 
possible,  up  to""-'  130°  or  140°,  stirring  occasionally  but  no  more 
than  necessary  to  insure  even  heating.  The  more  gently  the  ma- 
terial is  stirred  during  the  heating  the  coarser  grained  the  product 
in  appearance. 

If  the  room  is  very  cold,  or  if  preferred  for  sanitary  reasons,  the 
material  may  be  heated  to  150°  or  160°,  without  injuring  the 
product  or  making  necessary  any  other  change  in  the  process.  After 
heating,  it  is  left  undisturbed  for  about  an  hour.  ^During  this 
period,  the  vat  should  be  covered  in  order  that  it  may  cool  as  little 
as  possible,  for  when  later  put  on  the  rack,  the  curd  will  drain 
faster  if  warm  than  if  cold. 

Pet  the  Ceud  ox  the  Dkaixixg  Pack 

After  the  vat  has  stood  for  about  an  hour  at  130°  to  140°  the 
draining  cloth  is  placed  on  the  I'ack  so  as  to  cover  the  sides  and  be 
located  near  the  floor  drain.  Upon  examination  of  the  vat  contents 
it  will  }je  found  that  the  curd  has  se])arated  from  the  whey  and  has 
collected  in  a com}>act  mass  either  at  the  lop  of  or  bottom  of  the 
whey  (fig.  6).  Do  not  stir  the  vat  cmitents  at  ibis  p int. 

If  the  curd  is  floatitig  with  clear  whey  beneath  (left,  lig.  6),  the 
whey  can  be  drawn  out  through  the  paidly  opened  gate  into  the 
draining  rack  and  will  run  through  the  cloth  and  the  floor  di'ain  to 
the  whey  tank.  As  the  whey  runs  out,  the  layer  of  curd  in  the  vat 
settles  slowly  and,  last  of  all,  it  runs  out  through  the  gate  and  is 

*If  f5w<-et  cream  i.s  ctinrned  tlie  sweet  })ntteriiiilk  should  be  treated  with  starter, 
heated  to  100',  and  left  several  hours  to  sour  and  curdle.  It  is  then  heated  (see 
directions  giveji)  to  130  to  140®  for  making  the  cheese 


14 


Wiscoxsix  Bulletin  315 


caught  on  the  cloth.  By  this  means  it  is  easy  to  get  rid  of  most  of 
the  clear  whey  first  and  the  curd  is  put  on  the  draining  rack  in  the 
form  of  a thick  mush.  It  is  well  to  set  a small  pan  under  the  gate 
on  the  draining  cloth  to  prevent  the  curd  beating  through  the  cloth 
at  the  place  where  it  falls. 


FIG.  6.  CURD  COLLECTS  AT  EITHER  THE  TOP  OR  THE  BOTTOM 
OF  THE  VAT 

The  curd  usually  floats  on  the  whey  (left)  but  it  may  settle  to  the  bottom  (rierht), 
in  which  case  it  requires  different  handling  before  draining. 


In  case  the  curd,  after  standing  at  140°  for  an  hour,  has  settled  to 
the  bottom  of  the  vat  (right,  fig.  6),  it  is  best  to  open  the  gate  on\v 
part  way  at  first,  so  as  to  draw  out  as  much  as  possible  of  the  clear 
whey  with  only  a little  of  the  curd.  Afterward  the  gate  is  opened 
wide  and  the  bulk  of  the  curd  with  the  small  amount  of  remaining 
whey  is  run  on  to  the  draining  rack.  In  general,  it  may  be  said 
that  curds  made  from  raw  cream  buttermilk  always  float  at  the  top 
of  the  whey  after  standing  hot  an  hour.  As  soon  as  all  of  the  curd 
is  on  the  rack,  it  is  covered  and  left  to  drain  for  a few  hours  or  over 
night. 


How  Ia>xg  to  Dkaix  Cheese 

An  important  point  in  the  making  of  buttermilk  cheese  is  to  see 
that  the  curd  is  drained  uniformly,  so  as  to  be  of  uniform  consist- 
ency from  day  to  day.  The  lieginner  will  do  well  to  examine  the 
curd  at  intervals  after  it  is  placed  on  the  draining  rack.  The  por- 
tions of  enrd  nearest  the  cloth  drain  most  rapidly  and  may  some- 
times become  quite  dry  while  the  top  of  the  curd  is  still  saturated 
with  whey.  To  hasten  the  draining,  the  maker  may  lift  up  the 
cloth  at  one  end  of  the  rack.  Slowly  lowering  the  cloth  into  place 
again  will  allow  any  loose  whey  to  run  down  over  the  clean  cloth 
surface  and  drain  through  more  rapidly.  The  cloth  should  be  raised 
at  the  other  end  of  the  rack,  also,  and  the  curd  rolled  into  a pile  at 


Cottage  Cheese  axd  Bettei^milk  Cheese 


15 


the  middle.  As  long  as  the  c-iird  flows  like  thick  mush  or  mortar 
when  the  corner  of  the  cloth  is  raised,  it  is  too  moist  to  suit  the 
taste  of  most  people. 


FIG.  7.  three  stages  OF  THE  DRAINING  PROCESS 
At  1 the  curd  is  lying  on  the  cheesecloth  in  the  bottom  of  the  draining  rack ; at  2 
the  cloth  is  lifted  on  one  side  to  pile  the  curd  in  the  center  of  the  rack; 
at  3 the  operation  is  completed.  This  hastens  the  draining. 


Cheese  should  always  be  drained  sufficiently  before  jmcking,  to 
prevent  whey  from  separating  from  the  curd,  in  the  package^  or  the 
product  leaking  out  when  the  container,  such  as  a covered  Initter 
tub,  is  inverted.  When  properly  drained,  the  mass  of  curd  can  be 
taken  out  of  the  draining  rack  and  molded  with  paddles  into  a tall 
form  without  losing  its  shape  (fig.  8).  If  drained  too  dry,  it  falls 
apart  like  damp  sand  when  piled  up.  It  would  be  much  better  to 
drain  the  curd  longer  than  necessary,  rather  than  not  long  enough, 


FIO,  8.  A MOLD  OF  lU’TTER  .\I  I E K CHEESE  RET.AINS  PI’S  SHAPE 

l'rop«*rly  drained  buttermilk  cheese  has  a faiily  firm  consistency  so  that,  wlion 
turned  out  of  a tub,  if  will  retain  its  form  for  a time. 


IG 


Wiscoxsix  Bulletix'  31.-) 


for  if  the  cheese  is  too  dry  the  maker  or  consumer  may  at  any  time 
restore  the  desired  consistency  by  stirring  in  a little  clear,  cold 
water.  However,  the  drier  the  curd  after  draining,  the  harder 
Avork  it  is  to  stir  in  the  salt.  On  account  of  the  smooth  texture  and 
fine  buttermilk  flavor  of  the  product,  it  is  not  customary  for  the 
maker  to  add  any  cream  to  it  before  packing. 

►'!?JALT1XG  THE  Cl'KD 

The  curd  should  be  salted  and  packed  as  soon  as  it  is  properly 
drained  and  before  it  gets  drier  than  is  desirable.  Use  from  one 
and  one-fourth  to  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  salt  for  100  pounds 
of  curd  obtained,  or  for  800  pounds  of  buttermilk  used.  Weigh  the 
salt  carefully.  Break  up  any  lumps.  Stir  it  in  Avell. 

Fixdix^g  a Market  for  Butter:uilk  Cheese 

City  creameries  Avhich  have  an  ample  local  outlet  for  their  butter 
find  little  difficulty  in  disposing  of  buttermilk  cheese  to  their  local 
trade.  One  firm  reports  the  sale  of  28,000  pounds  of  cheese  during 
one  3’ear  from  their  branch  creameries  in  tAvo  cities  of  medium  size 
in  the  middle  west.  In  every  case  it  is  necessary  to  bring  the  cheese 
to  the  attention  of  prospective  customers,  such  as  storekeepers, 
factory  patrons  and  residents  of  the  vicinity.  Where  a perishable 
product  such  as  buttermilk  cheese"  is  offered  for  sale,  it  is  important 
that  the  retailer  use  attractive  AvindoAv  cards  for  advertising  the 
produc-t  to  the  public  so  that  it  may  be  sold  Avhile  fresh. 

CoLORixG  Buttermilk  Cheese 

Some  kinds  of  butter  coloring  impart  a faint  color  to  the  butter- 
milk and  also  to  the  cheese.  If  a deeper  color  is  desired  in  the 
cheese  It  may  be  obtained  by  adding  to  the  buttermilk  before  it  is 
heated  to  140°  cheese  color  such  as  is  used  by  makers  of  Cheddar 
cheese.  One-half  ounce  or  more  of  cheese  color  may  be  used  for 
each  1,000  pounds  of  buttermilk.  If  a perfectly  Avhite  cheese  is 
desired  the,  biittermaker  should  draAv  off  the  buttermilk  after  the 
churning  and  then  add  butter  color  to  the  butter  in  the  churn  with 
the  salt. 


Published  and  distributed  under  Act  of  Congress,  May  8,  1914,  by  the 
Agricultural  Extension  Service,  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of 
AVisconsin,  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  co-operating. 


f£k 


/<Kor-y> 


Bulletin  316  June,  1920 

Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


GIVE  THE  HIRED  MAN  A HOME 
For  the  farm  hand  with  a wife,  a good  house;  for  the  single  man,  a place 
In  the  farmer’s  family;  for  them  both,  a chance  to  own  farms:  these  are 
long-time  solutions  of  the  farm  labor  problem. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 

cooperating  with 

OFFICE  OF  FARM  MANAGEMENT 
UNITED  STATES 

DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


DIGEST 


Only  one-fiftli  of  the  work  on  Wisconsin  farms  is  done  by  hired 
labor  working  out.  The  supply  of  farm  labor  has  been  increasing,  but 
the  demand  has  been  increasing  still  faster,  principally  because  of  live- 
stock farming.  Farmers  were  using  40  per  cent  more  hired  labor  in 
1910  than  in  1880.  Pages  3 to  7 

The  proper  amount  of  help  to  hire  depends  in  general  upon  the 
farmer’s  capacity  to  handle  it,  but  varies  with  wages,  prices  and  rents. 

Pages  7 to  10 

The  best  farm  hands  to  hire  on  modem  farms  are  the  native-born 
sons  of  neighboring  farmers  who  are  getting  ready  to  farm  for  them- 
selves. Pages  10  to  14 

Public  employment  ofiaces  properly  used  will  be  of  considerable 
service  in  times  of  emergency.  The  best  place  to  find  help,  however,  is 
near  home.  Pages  14  to  17 

Prices  of  Wisconsin  farm  products  rose  85  per  cent  between  1910 
and  1918,  while  farm  wages  rose  only  59  per  cent.  Wages  usually  lag 
behind  in  this  way.  In  a period  of  rising  pric-es,  a wage  reckon^  on 
the  basis  of  new  prices  for  farm  products  wull  therefore  be  somewhat 
higher  than  the  prevailing  wage.  Pages  17  to  20 

Farm  wages  are  over  $10  higher  in  southwestern  Wisconsin  than  in 
central  and  east-central  Wisconsin.  Pages  20  to  22 

New  methods  of  paying  wages,  such  as  profit-sharing,  bonus-paying, 
and  wage-scales  are  being  used  more  and  more.  Pages  22  to  24 

A clearer  understanding  of  legal  and  moral  obligations  would  save 
much  of  the  friction  between  farmers  and  hired  men.  Pages  24  to  31 

The  average  work-day  on  260  farms  in  Wisconsin  in  1916  was  11 
hours  and  48  minutes.  This  means  about  450  more  hours  a year  than 
factory  workers  have.  Pages  31  to  34 

Better  homes,  better  living  conditions  and  year-round  work  are  more 
important  than  better  wages  and  shorter  hours.  Pages  34  to  40 

The  final  solution  of  the  farm  labor  problem  will  probably  come 
from  keeping  more  sons  on  the  farm  and  keeping  farmers  from  retiring 
to  the  city,  and  by  adjusting  the  size  of  the  farm  to  the  amount  of 
labor  that  can  thus  be  provided.  Pages  40  to  48 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin* 

H.  C.  Taylor  xInd  J.  D.  Black 

Farm  labor,  how  much  to  hire,  where  to  hire  it,  how  to  hire  it, 
and  how  to  manage  it  and  keep  it  after  it  is  hired,  are  questions  that 
every  farmer  is  asking. 

Labor  has  become  so  scarce  that  farmers  need  to  do  more  think- 
ing about  it  than  about  crops  and  livestock.  The  farmers  who  will 
make  the  largest  profits  in  the  next  ten  years  are  the  farmers  who 
are  able  to  keep  hired  help  and  to  put  it  to  the  best  use.  Many  will 
make  small  profits  because  they  are  unable  to  find  and  keep  hired 
labor.  More  will  lose  money  because  they  cannot  handle  it  properly. 

There  are  important  questions  which  a farmer  has  to  answer  in 
order  to  find  and  keep  and  successfully  handle  farm  labor.  How 
- much  help  does  he  need  and  can  he  profitably  use  at  present  prices  ? 
\\Tiat  price  should  he  pay  for  it  ? Where  shall  he  find  it, — through 
employment  bureaus,  by  advertising,  or  at  home?  What  is  a Just 
and  equitable"  arrangement  of  wages  and  hours?  Will  all-the-year- 
round  employment  help  out  the  situation  ? What  kind  of  home  con- 
ditions and  opportunity  for  recreation  has  the  hired  man  a right  to 
expect  ? 

If  a farmer  cannot  get  labor  or  cannot  keep  it  in  any  way,  he 
must  then  adjust  his  work  to  fit  the  shortage  of  labor. 

These  measures  are  all  temporary.  The  final  solution  of  the 
labor  problem  lies  not  with  any  one  farmer,  but  with  every  one  who 
is  interested  in  agriculture.  Stick  to  the  small-sized  farm,  which 
the  family  can  run  without  outside  help.  Educate  the  farm  boys 
so  that  they  will  stay  on  the  farm  and  do  the  work  efficiently,  with- 
out so  much  need  of  other  labor.  Let  the  farmer  retire  gradually, 
living  on  or  near  the  farm,  ready  to  help  during  rush  seasons,  in- 
stead of  moving  to  the  city  and  taking  with  him  both  his  money  and 
his  labor.  Improve  the  hired  man’s  chance  in  life,  enabling  him  to 
become  a farm  owner  by  helping  him  learn  the  business  and  by 
making  it  easier  to  get  credit  and  start  on  a farm  of  his  own.  If 
necessary,  encourage  a system  of  loans  from  the  state  or  nation. 

♦This  bulletin  was  written  on  the  basis  of  data  gathered  in  1918  and 
preceding.  Since  1918  the  changes  respecting  farm  labor  have  been  pro- 
nounced. Contrary  to  anticipations  on  the  part  of  the  farmers  the  return 
of  soldiers  to  civil  life  failed  to  relieve  the  labor  shortage.  Wages  were 
higher  and  men  harder  to  And  in  1919  than  in  1918  and  now  (1920)  the 
case  is  more  acute  than  ever  before.  Not  only  are  wages  at  an  unprece- 
dented figure,  $75,  $80  and  even  $100  a month  and  board,  but  it  is  reported 
on  good  authority  that  some  land  is  destined  to  lie  idle  for  the  season 
because  of  the  inability  of  farmers  to  secure  help  at  any  price. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


Any  solution  of  the  farm  labor  problem,  whether  for  the  whole 
business  of  farming  or  for  the  individual  farm  in  any  one  season, 
must  be  met  by  an  understanding  of  just  where  the  difficulty  lies. 
The  usual  impresssion  is  that  the  farm  labor  supply  has  been  falling 


FIG.  1.  MORE  FARM  LABORERS,  BUT  STILL  NOT  ENOUGH 
While  the  supply  of  hired  men  has  actually  increased  since  1880  (see 
Table  I)  dairying-  and  intensive  farming  have  so  increased  the  demand  that 
farm  laborers  are  becoming  relatively  scarcer. 

off  for  many  years,  but  from  1880  to  1910  not  only  did  farm 
laborers  increase  in  numbers,  but  they  increased  faster  than  the 
land  in  farms,  than  improved  land,  than  the  number  of  farms,  and 
the  number  of  farmers. 


Table  I. — How  the  Number  of  Farm  Laborers  Increased  from  . 
1880  TO  1910 


Farm  laborers 
Farmers 

1910 

101,600 

172,000 

1900 

80,745 

162,908 

1890 

73,600 

146,400 

. 1880 
54,700 
133,000 

Total  agricultural  ‘ -workers 

273,600 

243,653 

220,000 

' 187,700 

Farmer  laborers  per  farm 

0.56 

0.48 

0.49 

0.41 

Agricultural  workers  per  farm 

1.51 

1.44 

1.45 

1.40 

Farm  laborers  per  farmer 

0.59 

0.50 

0.50 

0.41 

Farm  laborers  per  1,000  improved 

6.1 

acres 

8.4 

7.2 

7.3 

Agricultural  workers  per  1,000  im- 
proved acres 

22.6 

21.7 

21.8 

20.5 

Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


5 


More  labor  was  being  applied  to  each  acre  of  land  in  1910  than 
ever  before,  and  more  of  this  was  being  done  by  hired  laborers. 
For  every  61  hired  men  in  1880,  there  were  84  in  1910.  Similarly 
the  amount  of  help  employed  by  each  farmer  increased,  as  indicated 
in  figure  1. 

It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  although  farm  laborers  were 
increasing  in  numbers,  actually  they  were  becoming  scarcer  because 
the  demand  for  them  was  increasing  even  faster  than  the  supply. 
The  principal  reason  for  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  increase  in  dairy- 
ing. Each  agricultural  worker  was  taking  care  of  5%  dairy  cows 
in  11910  as  compared  with  3%  in  1890.  Farming  has  been  becoming 
more  intensive  in  Wisconsin,  and  hence  demands  more  labor.  States 
in  the  grain-farming  region  do  not  show  these  increases. 


1,000  ACRES 


FARMERS 
630  ACRES 


i 

,,,  SONS 
165  ACRES  % 


;v;v;HiREp;;;;.y: 

205  ACRES 


FIG.  2.  WHO  DOES  THE  WORK  ON  WISCONSIN  FARMS? 

On  each  1,000  acres  of  farm  land  In  Wisconsin,  the  farmers  themselves 
do  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  work,  the  farmers’  sons  do  one-sixth,  and  the 
hired  men  do  one-fifth. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


Sources  of  Our  Farm  Labor 

Because  Wisconsin  farms  are  small,  averaging  only  119  acres,  a 
large  part  of  the  work  (fig.  2)  is  done  by  the  farmer  himself  and 
his  family.  Of  the  273,600  male  agricultural  workers  16  years  old 
and  over  in  Wisconsin  in  1910,  the  farmers  themselves  numbered 
172,000,  the  farmers’  sons  45,390  and  ‘^hired  men  working  out” 
only  56,300. 

The  proportion  of  our  farm  laborers  who  are  our  own  farmers’ 
sons  is  increasing.  So  is  the  proportion  of  city-born  farm  laborers. 
The  class  which  is  decreasing  is  the  ‘^newcomer”  or  foreign-born 
class.  Figure  3 shows  only  13  per  cent  for  this  class  in  1910,  as 
compared  with  30  per  cent  in  1890.  When  the  war  began,  the  new- 
comers almost  quit  coming.  Our  farmers’  sons,  however,  are  more 
and  more  often  sons  of  foreign-born  parents.  Only  20  per  cent  of 
all  our  farm  laborers  in  1910  were  sons  of  American-born  parents. 


FIG.  3.  SOURCES  OF  OUR  FARM  LABOR 
In  spite  of  the  increase  of  the  city  element,  farmers’  sons  still  make  up 
the  large  part  of  our  supply  of  farm  labor. 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


7 


The  class  of  farm  hands  called  ‘^country-city”  (fig.  3)  work  both 
in  the  city  and  in  the  country.  Perhaps  half  of  them  are  country- 
born.  This  class  includes  among  others  the  “hobos”  and  part  of 
the  “floaters.” 


FAKM  LABOR  QUESTIONS 
How  Much  Help  to  Hire 

A farmer  does  not  aid  anybody,  even  in  times  of  a great  food 
shortage,  when  he  hires  more  help  than  is  profitable.  All  that  he 
does  is  take  this  labor  from  somebody  else  who  could  put  it  to  better 
use.  The  farmer  who  can  put  labor  to  best  use  is  the  one  who  can 
bid  highest  for  it  and  still  make  a proflt  on  it.  Any  other  farmer 
in  order  to  get  this  labor  must  bid  so  high  for  it  that  he  loses  money 
by  it. 

If  a farmer  has  kept  no  careful  account  of  his  last  year’s  business, 
he  cannot,  in  advance,  tell  for  certain,  whether  he  ought  to  use  three 
hired  men  or  two,  or  whether  he  can  afford  to  pay  the  third  man 
$40,  $50  or  more,  a month.  All  he  can  do  in  such  a ease  is  look 
all  the  facts  squarely  in  the  face  and  make  the  best  guess  he  can. 
Following  are  some  of  the  facts  to  be  considered : 

1.  His  own  capacity  for  handling  labor.  Farmers  differ  so  in 
this  respect  that  one  is  often  able  to  pay  twice  as  much  wages  as 
another  and  still  make  a profit.  If  a farmer  is  not  a good  manager, 
then  the  right  thing  for  him  to  do  is  to  use  less  help  instead  of  more. 
In  many  cases  it  may  even  pay  him  to  let  his  sons  work  out  for 
some  of  his  neighbors  who  are  better  managers  and  can  pay  good 
wages.  Indeed,  many  men  now  farming  would  profit  more  if  they 
would  rent  their  land  and  sell  their  own  labor  to  their  neighbors 
instead  of  trying  to  farm  for  themselves.  A good  manager,  on  the 
other  hand,  ought  seriously  to  consider  using  more  labor  and  in- 
creasing his  business. 

2.  His  success  in  finding  help  and  keeping  it.  A farmer  who 
lives  a long  way  from  town,  or  in  some  undesirable  neighborhood, 
or  ha^  a poor  farm  with  a poor  home  and  poor  equipment,  often  has 
difficulty  in  finding  men  and  getting  them  to  hire  out  to  him. 
Other  farmers  always  have  trouble  with  their  hired  men  and  lose 
them  before  the  season  is  over.  Such  farmers  ought  to  hire  less 
help  instead  of  more.  On  the  other  hand,  tlie  farmers  who  manage 
well,  and  keep  their  hired  men  interested  and  friendly,  ought  to 
be  on  larger  farms. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


3.  Securing  the  right  combination  of  labor  and  equipment. 

Only  when  labor  and  equipment  are  combined  in  the  right  propor- 
tion is  the  farmer  able  to  make  the  largest  profit.  What  these  pro- 
portions are  depends  upon  what  each  costs  and  upon  what  each  can 
produce  combined  with  the  other.  When  costs  change,  then  ordi- 
narily these  proportions  change.  If  wages  rise  relative  to  prices  and 
cost  of  upkeep  of  machinery  and  horses,  farmers  generally,  but  not 
always,  profit  by  using  less  labor  and  more  machinery  and  horses. 
Sometimes  under  such  circumstances,  farm  labor  still  pays  a bigger 
return  on  its  higher  wage  than  machinery  and  horses  on  their  new 
prices.  Cost  of  management  and  supervision  must  always  be 
counted  in  with  money  costs.  Table  II  shows  that  there  has  been 
a general  rise  in  farm  wages  since  1866.  From  1894  to  1916,  the 
rise  was  fairly  regular.  Since  1916,  it  has  been  rapid. 


TlA.ble  II. — Average  Wages  by  the  Month,  with  Bo^rd,  of  Farm 
Laborers  in  Wisconsin  Since  1866. 

(Help  Hired  by  the  Year.) 


Year 

Wages 

Year 

Wages 

1866 

$13.99 

1899 

$16.45 

1869 

13.56 

1902 

19.13 

1874-75 

14.28 

1906 

22.41 

1879-80 

14.76 

1909 

24.39 

1881-82 

17.90 

1910 

26.00 

1884-85 

16.78 

1914 

28.00 

1889-90 

16.75 

1915 

28.50 

1891-92 

14.34 

1916 

31.00 

1894 

14.22 

1917 

35.07 

1898 

14.98 

1918 

41.50 

Table  II  shows  that  in  spite  of  this  doubling  of  farm  wages  be- 
tween 1880  and  1910,  the  amount  of  farm  labor  used  in  Wisconsin 
increased  from  20.5  agricultural  workers  to  22.6  agricultural  work- 
ers on  each  1000  acres  of  improved  land. 

When  prices  of  farm  products  rise,  most  farmers  try  to  produce 
larger  crops,  and  to  produce  these  crops  by  using  more  labor  on  the 
same  land.  This  is  good  managing  only  in  case  rents  have  already 
risen  more  than  wages.  Otherwise  renting  more  land  will  pay 
better. 

What  Kind  of  Help? 

By  the  day,  month,  or  year.  IVhat  a farmer  likes  best  is  season 
hands  to  do  what  year  hands  cannot,  and  day  hands  to  help  out  the 
other  two.  But  help  is  usually  too  scarce  for  this.  The  best  farm 
help  hires  out  by  the  year.  Hence  the  farmer  has  to  ask  himself. 
Which  way  will  I lose  less,  if  I hire  a good  man  longer  than  I need 
him,  or  if  I hire  a less  capable  man  just  as  long  as  I want  him  ? He 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


9 


has  to  answer  the  same  question  as  to  day  help  and  season  help. 
Many  times  in  deciding  whether  to  use  year  instead  of  month  hands, 
a farmer  may  profitably  pay  labor  more  than  it  earns  for  him  just 
then,  in  order  to  have  help  in  the  future  when  there  is  much  profit- 
able work  to  be  done. 

Single  or  married.  Married  laborers  are  usually  more  depend- 
able than  single  men.  War  prices  in  cities  drove  many  one-time 
hired  men,  now  married,  back  to  the  farms.  Events  in  the  near 
future  may  do  the  same.  Wherever  farmers  find  the  supply  of 
married  laborers  increasing  in  their  localities,  they  should  consider 
seriously  the  building  of  a suitable  cottage  for  farm  laborers  with 
a family.  The  old  tenant  house  is  probably  in  bad  condition. 

Some  farmers  have  had  success  in  hiring  “farm  couples.”  The 
husband  works  on  the  farm,  and  the  wife  helps  with  the  housework. 
The  couple  have  rooms  in  the  farmhouse.  If  the  plan  works,  it  is 
economical ; but  double  care  must  be  taken  in  making  the  selection. 

Qualities  Desired  in  Hired  Help  on  the  Farm 

1.  Health  and  strength.  Many  jobs  are  left  on  the  farm 
which  take  muscle  and  endurance.  There  is  no  profit  in  keeping 
horses  and  machinery  working  at  less  than  capacity  just  because 
the  men  cannot  keep  up  the  pace. 

2.  Skill  in  a large  variety  of  jobs.  The  unskilled  farm  hand 
who  does  only  three-fourths  of  a day^s  work  with  a team  earns  no 
more  than  half  wages  and  besides  robs  the  farmer  of  the  profits  on 
a fourth  of  his  horse  labor. 

3.  With  skill  must  go  knowledge.  The  hired  man  may  be 
called  upon  to  set  the  drill  to  sow  the  right  amount  of  different 
seeds,  or  he  may  be  asked  to  decide  upon  the  right  time  to  rake 
and  pile  alfalfa. 

4.  The  work  habit,  interest  in  his  work,  ability  to  hold  his 
mind  on  his  work.  A good  workman  is  happy  only  when  he  is 
busy  and  absorbed  in  his  work.  A hired  man  should  be  able  to 
enjoy  life  off  the  farm  without  letting  it  spoil  his  taste  for  his  job 
the  next  day. 

5.  Ability  to  take  directions,  to  listen  carefully  when  direc- 
tions are  being  given,  understand  them,  remember  them,  and  apply 
them  in  actually  doing  the  work. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


6.  Ability  to  plan  his  work,  to  lay  out  a schedule  for  the  day 
and  then  stick  to  it. 

7.  Ability  to  make  good  suggestions.  A hired  man  may  assist 
in  managing  the  farm.  Oftentimes  he  is  closer  to  a large  part  of 
the  work  than  his  employer,  and,  if  he  has  good  judgment,  can  make 
some  very  useful  suggestions  about  it. 

8.  A proper  sense  of  his  relation  to  the  farm  business.  He 

should  be  willing  to  carry  out  his  employer's  wishes  even  if  they 
are  not  according  to  his  judgment.  Some  hired  men  are  unhappy 
and  often  useless  because  they  want  things  done  their  own  way. 

9.  A proper  sense  of  his  own  ability  and  importance. 

10.  Courage  and  resoluteness  in  carrying  out  those  things 
which  he  knows  he  can  do,  as  distinguished  from  the  conceit  which 
makes  some  men  attempt  foolhardy  things. 

11.  Patience  and  self-control.  Things  are  bound  to  go  wrong 
on  the  farm  sometimes.  The  hired  man,  like  the  farmer  himself, 
must  control  himself,  keep  cool,  and  let  things  quiet  down. 

12.  Honesty.  The  farm  hand  who  will  lie  about  so  small  a 
thing  as  breaking  a pitchfork  is  sure  to  lose  the  trust  of  his  em- 
ployer. He  then  has  to  be  watched,  and  no  employer  or  employee 
likes  watching. 

13.  Good  morals,  clean  habits,  decent  language,  and  a pleas- 
ant manner.  The  hired  man  is  usually  part  of  the  farm  family. 
He  should  cooperate  in  all  ways  in  making  the  farm  home  neat 
and  cheerful.  Tracking  mud  into  the  kitchen,  for  example,  will 
not  help  much  in  this  respect. 

Kinds  of  Farm  Labor  Available 

1.  The  newcomer.  More  and  more  our  newcomers  are  from 
Russia,  Austria,  Hungary,  Italy,  Poland  and  Bohemia,  and  fewer 
and  fewer  of  them  are  from  Germany,  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark, 
England  and  Ireland.  The  newer  immigrants  often  know  much 
more  about  gardening  than  about  working  with  livestock  and  ma- 
chinery. Many  of  them  seem  very  hard  to  teach.  They  are  also 
much  keener  about  their  rights  than  the  older  immigrants.  In  a 
year’s  time,  they  often  become  so  independent  that  they  deny  the 
authority  of  their  employers.  They  lack  the  sense  of  duty  to  their 
employers  which  our  native  sons  learn  on  the  home  farm. 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


11 


2.  The  old-time  newcomer’s  sons.  These  make  by  far  the 

largest  class  of  farm  labor  in  Wisconsin,  and  their  numbers  are 
still  increasing.  The  immigrants  may  have  stopped  coming,  but 
their  families  are  still  growing  up.  Eoughly  speaking,  there  are 
three  kinds  of  newcomers’  sons  doing  farm  labor: 

a.  Those  still  tied  to  the  old-world  family  system,  who  have  few 
ideas  of  farming  or  anything  else  except  those  their  fathers  gave 
them  and  wEose  education  stopped  at  the  Third  or  Fourth  Eeader. 
They  usually  take  all  or  part  of  their  wages  home,  at  least  until 
they  are  21,  and  expect  to  marry  and  begin  farming  for  themselves 
very  shortly.  They  make  good  hired  men,  byt  they  have  to  be 
taught  much  about  crops,  livestock  and  machinery  before  they  are 
very  useful  on  an  up-to-date  farm. 

b.  Those  who  have  broken  loose  from  the  control  of  their  fathers 
and  have  no  self-control  to  take  its  place. 

c.  Those  who  are  wide-awake  to  new  ideas  in  farming  and  ambi- 
tious to  farm  for  themselves  as  soon  as  possible.  Sometimes  it  is 
education  that  has  awakened  them;  often  it  is  nothing  more  than 
contact  with  good  farming  in  their  home  neighborhoods.  These 
make  excellent  hands. 

3.  Our  native  American  farmers’  sons.  Farmers’  sons  of  na- 
tive stock  are  likely  to  have  farms  of  their  own  to  start  with,  or 
else  they  do  not  want  to  farm.  Those  who  do  become  hired  men 
so  frequently  have  poor,  ignorant  or  spendthrift  farmers  for  fathers 
that  they  are  poorly  prepared  to  do  satisfactory  work.  When  they 
come  from  good  farms  and  good  farm  homes  and  are  getting  ready 
to  farm  for  themselves,  they  are  the  best  farm  hands  on  the  land. 

4.  The  seasoned  hired  man  is  one  who  started  ont  intending  to 
earn  enough  money  to  become  a farmer,  but  has  been  so  long  about 
it  that  he  has  become  a hardened  veteran.  He  has  had  experience 
with  so  many  employers  that  he  has  firm  convictions  about  the  whole 
lot  of  them.  Such  men  are  capable  workers,  but  will  work  only 
reasonably  hard,  and  they  need  to  be  handled  with  gloves. 

5.  The  summer  farm-hand  works  in  ilie  city  or  the  woods  in 
the  winter  and  returns  to  the  farm  in  the  summer.  Such  men  are 
apt  to  have  ^^city  notions”  about  hours  of  labor. 

(j.  The  back-to-the-land  farm  hand  has  been  trying  his  for- 
tune in  the  city,  and  has  made  uj)  his  mind  tbal  the  country  is 
the  best  place  after  all  and  is  back  making  a frcsli  start  before 
it  is  too  late.  Some  of  them  find  their  work  too  strenuous  about 
hay  or  silo-filling  time  and  hie  hack  to  the  city. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


7.  The  farm  apprentice  is  usually  a city  boy  trying  to  learn  in 
a few  months  what  farm  boys  have  been  all  their  lives  learning. 
Some  of  these  boys  intend  becoming  farmers,  or  their  parents  have 
such  intentions  for  them.  Others  of  them  are  working  on  the  farm 
just  because  it  pays  better,  when  board  and  everything  are  consid- 
ered, than  most  jobs  for  boys  in  the  city.  City-boy  apprentices  on 
farms  are  increasing  in  numbers.  Employment  offices  and  other 
agencies  are  putting  thousands  of  them  on  farms  each  year. 

8.  The  city  failure  has  tried  his  fortune  in  the  city  and  has 
come  out  of  it  a wreck.  The  city  annually  produces  its  thousands 
of  these.  Some  of  them  it  casts  out,  broken  in  mind  and  body, 
upon  the  country,  where  they  eke  out  the  best  existence  they  can. 
They  are  probably  more  useful  in  the  country  than  where  they 
were,  but  they  cannot  expect  big  wages  or  large  success. 

9.  The  floater  works  a few  months  in  a place,  occasionally  a 
whole  season,  then  gets  uneasy  and  moves  on.  He  works  at  steady 
jobs,  but  does  not  stick  to  any  one  of  them  long,  and  this  is  what 
makes  him  a nuisance.  He  sometimes  tries  his  hand  at  city  work  or 
lumbering  in  the  winter  time.  Many  floaters  are  excellent  workers, 
and  their  experience  often  makes  them  very  useful. 

10.  The  hobo  does  casual  labor,  wandering  from  place  to  place 
where  he  can  find  it.  Wisconsin  has  less  of  this  casual  farm  work 
than  some  states,  but  there  is  enough  of  haying  and  harvesting, 
silo-filling,  potato-digging  and  tobacco  work,  together  with  logging 
and  pea-canning  to  attract  a good  many  of  the  hobos  to  this  work. 
The  difference  between  a hobo  and  a tramp  is  that  the  tramp  will 
not  work  at  all  if  he  can  help  it,  while  the  hobo  will  work,  and  often 
will  work  very  well,  until  he  gets  enough  money  ahead  so  that  he 
can  go  off  and  ^ffilow  it  in,’^  usually  in  a few  days  or  weeks  of  riotous 
living. 

11.  The  derelict  is  a farm  hand  who  works  from  farm  to  farm 
in  what  may  be  called  his  own  community,  often  the  community  in 
which  he  was  born,  staying  a month  or  hvo  or  a season  in  a place, 
always  for  low  wages,  because  he  is  no  longer  of  much  use,  if  ever 
he  was  of  much  use.  In  the  end  he  is  glad  to  be  taken  in  for  his 
board.  Almost  every  community  has  its  derelict. 

12.  The  farm  hand  with  a wife  is  usually  getting  ready  to  run 
a farm  of  his  own,  but  contrary  to  the  usual  custom,  has  married 
while  still  a hired  man.  He  usually  lives  in  a ^Tenant  house’^  on  the 
farm  and  works  at  so  much  a year,  including  house  rent,  fuel. 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


13 


garden,  and  so  forth.  Sometimes  his  family  is  large  enough  so  that 
all  his  earnings  are  absorbed  in  keeping  things  going.  Most  of  the 
‘^tenant  men’^  of  this  sort,  however,  have  come  from  cities  or  from 
Europe  with  families  already  on  their  hands.  Every  year  the  high 
cost  of  living  drives  thousands  of  such  families  out  into  the  country. 

13.  The  day  hand  lives  in  a cottage  in  the  country  or  in  the 
village  near  by  and  works  by  the  day  whenever  anybody  wants  him, 
or  in  some  cases,  when  he  feels  just  right  for  it.  There  are  millions 
of  his  kind  in  Europe,  but  not  many  left  in  America.  They  had  to 
leave  for  town  when  all  the  land  was  cleared  and  machinery  came 
into  general  use.  But  since  they  left  they  have  been  greatly  missed 
in  haying  and  harvesting.  They  never  were  prosperous,  and  often 
were  town  charges  in  part. 

14.  The  casual  laborer  works  by  the  day  at  any  odd  job,  farm- 
ing included.  Such  men  do  a great  deal  of  our  farm  work  in  busy 
seasons  in  many  places.  They  are  married  or  single  and  live  in 
the  city  or  village  near  by. 

How,  When  and  Where  to  Find  Help 

Nowadays  the  farmer  instead  of  the  hired  man  usually  has  to 
stand  the  expense  of  bringing  man  and  job  together.  Following  is 
a method  of  going  about  it. 

1.  Begin  early  and  hunt  for  help  thoroughly  close  to  home.  A 
shrewd  farmer  has  his  eyes  open  for  possible  hired  help  a whole 
season  ahead,  and  months  before  the  time  comes,  he  has  two  or 
three  men  sighted  and  probably  the  best  one  of  them  hired.  The 
men  to  watch  the  closest  are  farmers’  sons  about  ready  to  hire  out 
for  the  first  time,  and  hired  men  expecting  to  change.  Oftentimes 
an  offer  of  good  wages  will  tempt  a farmer’s  son  to  hire  out  when 
he  was  not  intending  to  take  such  a step.  Regular  hired  men  are 
frequently  able  to  earn  more,  after  another  year  of  experience,  than 
their  old  employer  can  afford  to  pay;  or  sometimes  they  wish  to 
change  merely  to  widen  their  experience  by  working  on  a new  farm. 
Men  willing  to  do  farm  work  may  usually  be  found  in  the  small 
cities  and  villages  roundabout.  Many  more  farmers’  sons  now  work- 
ing in  the  city  would  go  back  to  the  farm  if  farmers  went  to  them 
with  good  jobs.  Advertising  in  the  local  papers  in  cities  and  vil- 
lages near  by  produces  better  results  than  advertising  in  any  other 
kind  of  newspaper. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


2.  In  some  parts  of  the  state,  hunt  for  farm  help  in  foreign 
settlements  near  by.  Such  settlements  usually  have  more  family 
labor  than  they  can  use  profitably,  and  an  offer  of  fair  wages  will 
draw  some  of  it  away.  Advertising  in  the  right  newspapers  will 
sometimes  reach  these  people. 

3.  Advertise  for  it  in  other  counties  where  wages  are  lower. 

The  map  in  figure  5 shows  which  counties  these  were  in  1916  and 
1917.  If  the  names  of  the  local  newspapers  in  the  county  are 
not  known,  a letter  addressed  ^W^eekly  Newspaper^^  and  sent  to 
any  city  or  village  will  usually  get  a response.  An  advertisement 
in  a farm  weekly  that  circulates  all  over  the  state  will  often  attract 
the  attention  of  men  who  want  to  change  localities.  The  best  time 
to  get  help  from  other  counties  is  early,  before  the  best  men  hire 
out  near  home. 

4.  Advertise  in  the  newspapers  of  the  larger  cities,  especially 
for  temporary  help. 

5.  If  a state  has  a properly  organized  labor  employment  service, 
the  second  step  (instead  of  4)  may  well  be  to  call  upon  the  local 
labor  agent  or  county  labor  agent  or  the  nearest  public  employment 
office.  These  employment  offices  and  labor  agents  ought  to  be  able 
to  save  farm  employers  much  of  the  trouble  and  expense  of  hunting 
for  help  and  advertising.  In  April,  1919,  Wisconsin  had  22  em- 
ployment offices,  Ashland,  Beloit,  Eau  Claire,  Grand  Eapids,  Green 
Bay,  Hurley,  Janesville,  Kenosha,  La  Crosse,  Madison,  Manitowoc, 
Milwaukee,  Neenah-Menasba,  Oshkosh,  Eacine,  Ehinelander,  She- 
boygan, Superior,  Two  Eivers,  Waukesha,  Wausau  and  West  Allis. 

Each  of  these  offices  is  the  central  labor  station  for  the  territory 
around  it,  which  in  some  cases  includes  several  counties.  Most  of 
the  counties  of  the  state  have  county  labor  agents.  The  county 
agricultural  agent,  where  there  is  one,  usually  serves  as  county  labor 
agent.  All  the  local  and  count}^  agents  and  the  22  municipal  em- 
ployment offices  are  federated  into  one  system  under  the  State  Cen- 
tral Employment  Office  located  at  the  Capitol  in  Madison.  All  sur- 
pluses and  deficits  of  labor  in  the  various  cities  and  localities  are 
reported  to  the  State  Central  Office.  The  expenses  of  the  various 
offices  are  shared  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Labor,  the 
State  of  Wisconsin,  and  the  municipalities. 

The  men^s  division  of  the  Milwaukee  Public  Employment  Office 
is  located  at  214  Fourth  Street.  Offices  in  other  cities  can  be 
reached  simply  by  addressing  letters  “Public  Employment  Office.” 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


15 


Two  other  public  employment  offices  which  the  farmers  of  Wis- 
consin occasionally  use  are : 

United  States  Employment  Service,  240-2  Marquette  Avenue, 
Minneapolis,  Minnesota ; 

United  States  Employment  Service,  116  North  Dearborn  Street, 
Chicago,  Illinois. 

How  TO  Make  Use  of  the  Employment  Service 

The  first  thing  to  do  in  case  help  is  needed  is  to  call  upon  the 
nearest  local  or  county  labor  agent.  If  he  cannot  find  the  help 
needed  near  home,  he  should  try  to  get  it  at  the  nearest  district 
employment  office.  If  the  district  employment  agent  cannot  supply 
the  labor  needed,  he  should  report  the  shortage  to  the  State  Central 
Office.  There  may  be  other  offices  which  have  more  labor  than  they 
can  place. 

It  is  always  best  to  go  direct  to  an  employment  office  and  pick  out 
the  kind  of  man  wanted.  The  best  time  to  go  is  early  in  the  week, 
and  early  in  the  forenoon,  as  there  are  many  more  to  select  from  at 
such  times.  Where  two  or  more  farmers  want  help  at  the  same 
time,  the  labor  agent  should  make  the  trip  to  the  employment  office 
for  them.  In  case  of  emergency,  help  can  be  obtained  from  an  em- 
ployment office  by  mail  or  by  telephone. 

Whichever  way  he  orders  help,  a farmer  needs  to  give  the  fullest 
possible  information  about  his  job.  Farm  laborers  are  human  and 
want  to  know  the  kind  of  job  they  are  going  to  get.  The  employeFs 
order  card  (fig.  4)  shows  the  kind  of  iuformation  needed.  A man 
who  asks  work  fills  out  an  application  for  employment  which  calls 
for  his  age,  nationality,  farm  experience,  the  kinds  of  work  he  is 
willing  to  do,  wages  desired,  and  so  forth.  The  wages  offered  should 
be  for  the  kind  of  man  asked  for  in  the  order.  If  a farmer  is  Tiot 
willing  to  state  the  wages  he  will  pay,  there  is  no  use  of  his  sending 
an  order  to  an  employment  office. 

If  a farmer  is  ordering  help  from  a distant  office,  he  should 
usually  state  in  his  order  whether  or  not  he  is  willing  to  advance 
railway  fare.  Farm  hands  will  not  go  to  the  expense  of  traveling 
very  far  unless  they  have  some  guarantee  that  they  will  be  hired 
when  they  arrive.  Where  the  farmer  advances  the  money  to  pay  the 
fare,  the  workman’s  baggage  is  checked  to  the  farmer  as  a guarantee 
that  the  ticket  will  be  used  for  the  right  purpose. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


The  farmer  should  report  to  the  employment  office  or  his  labor 
agent  within  a day  or  two  after  the  man  arrives.  He  should  be 
especially  careful  to  report  hired  men  who  are  ^ffio  good”  or  who 
quit  their  jobs.  This  will  keep  the  office  from  sending  such  men 
out  to  another  farmer. 


1^0 

Date 


EMPLOYER’S  ORDER 


TeleoUWle  Central  and  TelenUone  No  _ _ 
> Kail  road  Station 


No. 

Boys 

Men 

Women 

When 

Wanted 

How  long 

Kind  of  work 
to  be  done 

Wa  ges 
offered 

Married  or 
Single 

/ 

//Zil 

1 /^azyyyi/uriP 

(3fv 

9// 

n ^ 

30 



// 

7 

V 

Will  J^aaiMrleDoed  nirsoqa  do?  . * 

DlstaottigR^towo  1 Size  of  farm 

Nykanallty  preferred  , 

\jCO/mAiAa/u<t 

1 Acres  cultivated 

\W^/8 

No.  of  cows  gmplovM  is  to  milk 

KIND  OF  WORK 


DATE.  SENT 


S/^/zs' 


fig.  4.  EMPLOYER’S  ORDER  CARD,  FRONT  AND  BACK,  PROPERLY 

FILLED  OUT 

When  the  farmer  makes  use  of  an  employment  service  in  getting  help 
he  will  find  it  best  to  give  the  fullest  possible  information  about  the  job. 
The  card  shows  what  the  farmer  wanted  and  what  men  were  sent. 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


17 


Farmers  or  agents  who  have  sent  orders  to  an  employment  office 
and  then  hire  elsewhere  should  report  to  the  office  at  once.  If  they 
fail  to  do  this,  they  are  in  duty  bound  to  find  a job  for  any  man 
whom  the  office  sends  them  later. . 

If  employers  would  get  in  the  habit  of  informing  labor  agents 
and  employment  offices  a few  weeks  in  advance  of  their  needs,  they 
would  make  much  easier  the  work  of  the  employment  agents. 

The  farm  hands  using  the  employment  offices  are  of  the  follow- 
ing kinds,  the  most  numerous  being  named  first:  floaters;  hobos; 
boys  from  15  to  20;  foreigners,  once  farmers  in  Europe,  wanting 
to  quit  the  city;  men  with  families,  and  farm  couples;  summer 
farm  hands;  ‘‘seasoned’^  hired  men.  Probably  over  half  of  the 
floaters  quit  their  jobs  within  the  first  two  weeks.  Those  who  have 
had  the  best  success  using  employment  offices  have  hired  boys, 
foreigners,  or  married  men.  The  best  plan  with  unskilled  workmen 
is  to  hire  them  late  in  the  winter  or  early  in  the  spring  so  as  to  have 
time  to  teach  them  how  to  milk  and  handle  horses  before  the 
spring’s  work  comes  on.  Many  farmer  are  solving  their  labor 
problem  in  this  way.  They  are  at  the  same  time  helping  to  build  up 
a supply  of  farm  labor  for  the  future. 

Advertising  for  Help 

In  advertising  for  help,  it  is  not  always  best  to  offer  top-notch 
wages,  as  these  are  apt  to  attract  a restless  unreliable  class  of  labor. 
Eeasonable  wages  attract  reasonable  men.  The  advertisement 
should  give  enough  particulars  so  that  a farm  hand  will  know  if  he 
is  suited  to  the  job.  If  the  farmer  has  any  inducements,  such  as 
purebred  cattle  or  a milking  machine,  he  had  better  mention  them. 
The  following  will  do  as  an  advertisement : 

WANTED — ^^Experienced  farm  hand  March  to  December  for 
140-acre  dairy  farm.  Purebred  Holsteins.  ^50 
month,  with  board  and  washing.  John  Jones, 
Blankville,  Wis. 

An  advertisement  also  usually  needs  to  say  something  that  will 
weed  out  undesirable  applicants.  One  of  the  following  statements 
may  do  it:  ^‘Hours  5 a.  m.  to  6 p.  m.’’;  “6  to  10  cows  to  milk.’’ 

WiiAT  Wages  to  Pay 

Long  experience  has  taught  farm  employers  that  it  is  a good  plan 
to  stick  quite  close  to  the  prevailing  wage  when  making  a first  bar- 
gain with  a hired  man.  Many  prefer  to  offer  even  a little  under  this 
wage  at  the  start,  and  then  voluntarily  raise  it  later  in  the  season,  or 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


pay  the  hired  man  a bonus  at  the  end,  if  he  proves  to  be  as  good  as 
he  claims.  Nowadays,  however,  help  is  so  scarce  that  such  farmers 
have  to  be  satisfied  with  the  left-overs.  Hence  the  more  successful 
managers,  who  can  make  the  most  profit  out  of  hired  help,  usually 
offer  fully  up  to  or  a trifle  over  the  prevailing  wage,  so  as  to  make 
sure  of  getting  satisfactory  help. 


Taule  III. — How  Wages  of  Farm  Laborers  in  Wisconsin  Increase  Ac- 
cording TO  Age  (Wages  by  the  MIonth  for  1910.) 


Age  in  Years 

Wages 

15 

16 

17 

25 

19 

31 

21 

34 

23 

36 

25 

38 

27 

40 

29 

40 

31 

39 

33 

38 

35 

37 

37 

35 

39 

33 

WHAT  DETERMINES  THE  WAGE? 

Age  and  experience.  Table  III  shows  how  wages  varied  with 
age  for  several  hundred  Wisconsin  farm  hands  in  1916.  The 
average  wage  on  the  farms  considered  was  $34  a month.  Wages 
fall  as  the  men  pass  30  years  because  only  the  less  efficient  farm 
hands  are  left  after  this  age,  all  the  rest  having  become  tenants 
or  owners.  But  before  the  30-year  mark,  this  is  seldom  true. 
Nevertheless,  men  of  27  years  with  9 years  of  experience  were 
paid  only  $6  a month  more  than  men  of  21  with  2 years  of  experi- 
ence. The  increase  is  equal  to  the  increase  in  strength  and  en- 
durance, and  very  little  more.  It  is  true  that  many  farmers  on 
small  oM-style  farms  want  only  a man  who  can  do  ordinary  heavy 
farm  work,  and  they  cannot  be  expected  to  pay  for  what  they  do 
not  need.  However,  on  larger  farms,  and  on  the  better  grade  of 
livestock  farms,  farmers  are  finding  it  w'oith  while  to  pay  well 
for  skill  and  experience  and  for  such  qualities  as  good  judgment, 
resourcefulness  and  loyalty. 

Wages  for  the  second  year.  Deciding  the  wages  for  a second 
year  is  often  a ticklish  question.  Many  times  a farmer  may  need 
only  a $40  or  $50  man,  but  the  hired  man  is  now  worth  $75  after 
a few  years  of  experience.  In  such  a case,  all  he  can  do  is  look 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


19 


for  a new  hand.  At  other  times,  he  can  afford  to  pay  $3  more,  but 
the  hired  man  wants  $5.  The  only  fair  thing  to  do  is  to  say  to  the 
hired  man,  ^‘All  this  farm  can  afford  to  pay  you  is  $3  more.  But 
I don’t  want  you  to  hire  out  for  that  if  you  can  earn  more  on  some 
other  farm.  Look  around  and  see  what  other  farmers  will  offer  you, 
and  then  come  back  and  talk  the  thing  over  again.”  If  the  farm 
hand  cannot  be  made  contented  with  his  wages,  better  not  hire  him. 
A good  hired  man  should  be  retained  the  second  year,  if  possible, 
but  oftentimes  such  men  overestimate  their  value  to  a farm. 

One  should  be  cautious  in  overbidding  a hired  man’s  former  em- 
ployer, for  he  is  the  one  who  knows  his  work  best.  Of  course  it  may 
well  be  that  the  man  is  worth  more  to  you  than  to  the  last  farmer, 
and  if  so,  you  should  not  lose  your  chance.  It  is  never  safe  in  such 
case,  however,  to  take  the  neighborhood  estimate  of  hired  man’s 
worth.  Some  hired  men  are  good  advertisers.  • ' 

WHAT  ARE  PREVAILING  WAGES? 

Wlien  wages  are  rising  rapidly,  it  is  hard  to  know  what  the  going 
wages  are  at  the  time.  Farmers  are  likely,  early  in  the  hiring 
season,  to  choose  the  going  wage  of  the  year  before,  and  when  help 
gets  scarce  later  on,  to  bid  above  the  going  wage  for  the  present 
season.  Then  it  is  frequently  too  late,  for  the  farm  hands  by  that 
time  have  all  hired  out  or  have  gone  to  town.  A method  commonly 
suggested  of  estimating  prevailing  wages  for  the  coming  season  is  to 
figure  how  many  pounds  of  butter,  cheese,  and  pork,  and  how  many 
bushels  of  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  potatoes,  at  the  expected  prices  for 
the  coming  year,  it  will  take  to  pay  the  hired  man’s  wages  as  com- 
pared with  last  year  and  the  year  before.  The  difficulty  with  this 
method  is  that  prices  change  more  quickly  than  wages,  because  farm 
prices  vary  with  the  size  of  any  year’s  crop,  whereas  the  supply  of 
farm  labor  does  not  change  greatly  in  a year,  except  in  case  a war 
breaks  out.  Also,  in  a general  period  of  rising  prices,  farm  wages 
always  lag  behind  farm  prices.  This  is  because  farmers  do  not  at 
once  make  up  their  minds  to  hire  more  labor  when  prices  rise.  Or 
they  may  decide  to  use  more  horse-labor  and  machinery  instead  of 
more  man-labor.  Table  IV  shows  that  farm  wages  rose  only  43 
per  cent  between  1915  and  1918  while  farm  prices  were  rising  7(1 
per  cent.  This  method  of  estimating  prevailing  wages  in  advance 
will  therefore  give  too  high  a figure  in  periods  of  rising  prices,  and 
too  low  a figure  in  p(*riods  of  falling  prices. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


Table  IV. — What  a Dollar’s  Worth  of  Wisconsin  Farm  Labor  and 
A Dollar’s  Worth  of  Wisconsin  Farm  Products  Would 
Have  Cost,  Based  on  1910  Prices,  in  Cer- 
tain Years  Since  1866 


Year 

Price 

Wages 

Year 

Price 

Wages 

1866 

$ .94 

$ .53 

1906 

.88 

.86 

1869 

.88 

.52 

1909 

.96 

.94 

1879 

.83 

.57 

1910 

1.00 

1.00 

1881 

1.09 

.77  . 

1914 

1.08 

1.08 

1889 

.62 

.71 

1915 

1.05 

1.10 

1891 

.68 

.55 

1916 

1.46 

1.19 

1894 

.53 

.55 

1917 

1.76 

1.34 

1899 

.70 

.71 

1918 

1.85 

1.59 

1902 

.78 

.70 

Table  IV  shows  the  relation  between  prices  of  farm  products  and 
wages  of  farm  labor  over  a period  of  years.  The  table  was  made 
by  taking  farm  prices  for  the  things  a Wisconsin  farmer  has  to 
sell,  corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  potatoes,  hay,  tobacco,  cows, 
sheep,  hogs,  butter,  cheese,  milk,  and  eggs,  for  certain  years  since 
1866,  and  figuring  out  what  the  quantitity  which  brought  a dollar 
in  1910  sold  for,  on  the  average,  in  each  of  these  years.  Likewise, 
the  quantity  of  labor  which  cost  a dollar  in  1910  was  taken  as  a base 
and  the  cost  of  the  same  amount  figured  for  the  other  years.  In 
general,  farm  wages  have  increased  as  farm  prices  have  increased, 
but  the  correspondence  is  not  always  very  close.  Prices  seem  always 
to  have  risen  more  quickly  than  wages,  but  until  1915  they  had  not 
risen  so  far  as  wages. 

The  map  in  figure  5 shows  how  prevailing  wages  vary  by  counties 
and  districts.  The  districts  are  laid  out  according  to  farm  wages 
paid  and  the  type  of  farming  practiced.  Table  V presents  by  dis- 
tricts the  wages  paid  in  1918.  It  must  be  remembered  that  these 
wages  are  average  wages  for  average  men  when  hiring  out  for  the 
season.  They  are  not  the  top-notch  wages  paid  to  top-notch  men, 
nor  the  high  wages  paid  for  extra  help  for  a month  or  two  in  haying 
and  harvesting.  Wages  by  the  month  when  hiring  for  the  season  rose 
$4.72  between  1916  and  1917,  and  $7.22  between  1917  and  1918. 
The  difference  between  yearly  wages  and  season’s  was  $4.50  in  1918. 
The  increase  seems  to  have  affected  all  the  districts  nearly  alike. 
The  three  districts  lowest  in  1916  were  also  lowest  in  1918,  and  the 
highest  district  in  1916  was  still  highest  in  1918.  In  general,  how- 
ever, wages  advanced  more  in  the  western  districts  than  in  the 
eastern. 

Table  V also  gives  wages  by  the  day  for  harvest  work  and  other 
than  harvest  work  in  1918.  The  districts  rank  the  same  in  this  re- 
spect as  in  season’s  wages,  except  that  harvest  wages  are  relatively 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


21 


higher  in  the  high-wage  counties  than  in  the  low-wage  counties. 
Wages  without  board  in  1916  were  $12.80  more  by  the  month  than 
wages  with  board,  when  hiring  by  the  season.  The  records  show 
a difference  of  $17.50  in  1918  when  hiring  by  the  season  and  a 
difference  of  $18.60  when  hiring  by  the  year.  Day  wages  in  1918 
were  63  cents  more  without  board  than  with  board. 

Making  the  Bargain 

A thorough  understanding  in  making  a bargain  is  needed  more 
now  than  formerly  because  more  hired  men  are  strangers  and  do  not 


FIG.  5.  FARM  WAGES  (BY  THE  MONTH).  WITH  BOARD,  FOR  1916 
AND  1917;  ARRANGED  ACCORDING  TO  COUNTIES  AND 
districts  (HELP  HIRED  BY  THE  SEASON) 

The  1916  wages  are  given  above  and  the  1917  wages  below.  In  1916 
• ^ wages  for  32  weeks  were  $3.06  more  than  yearly  wages;  in  1917, 

$3.70  more.  The  averages  in  the  northern  counties  are  not  very  reliable. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


know  the  customs  and  practices  of  the  community  in  which  they 
hire  out.  The  advantage  of  the  written  contract  is  that  it  insures 
this  thorough  understanding.  It  is  not  best,  however,  to  draw  up 
written  contracts  in  most  cases.  If  drawn,  they  should  be  simple 
and  brief,  and  yet  cover  the  important  points. 


Table  V. — Wages  of  Farm  IjAbor  with  Board  in  1918  by  Districts 

(SEE  FIG.  3) 


District 

By  the 

month 

By  the  day 

Hired  by  the 
year 

Hired  by  the 
season 

Harvest  work 

Other  than 
harvest  work 

I 

$,3S.25 

$42.84 

$2.76 

$2.38 

II 

42.82 

47.45 

3 19 

2.57 

III 

47.00 

52.00 

3.42 

2.76 

IV 

43.17 

48.00 

3.18 

2.64 

V 

38.14 

42.57 

2.75 

2.35 

VI 

43.00 

47.62 

3.09 

2.49 

VII 

40.57 

45.07 

2.91 

2.37 

VIII 

42.80 

47.50 

2.90 

2.49 

state 

1 41.50 

46.00 

3.03 

2.51 

Methods  of  Paying 


The  hired  man  is  entitled  to  his  wages  as  soon  as  he  has  earned 
them  and  the  farmer  should  be  ready  to  pay  them  at  any  time.  The 
plan  of  holding  back  the  hired  man’s  wages  so  as  to  make  him  stick 
to  his  job  is  crude  and  out-of-date,  unless  it  happens  to  be  part  of 
some  good  wage-scale  plan. 

Wage  scales.  A wage  scale  is  a scheme  devised  to  make  the 
hired  man  stick  to  his  job.  The  usual  w^age  scale  fixes  a winter 
rate  and  a summer  rate.  A somewhat  more  complicated  scale  is 
described  in  the  following  paragraphs  from  a wage  contract: 

“For  the  services  above  described,  said  party  of  the  first  part  shall 
pay  said  party  of  the  second  part  the  sum  of  five  hundred  and  forty 
dollars  ($540),  which  is  at  the  rate  of  $45  a month,  in  monthly  pay- 
ments on  the  last  day  of  each  month  as  follows : 


January  

$35 

July  

February  

35 

August  

March  

35 

September  . . . 

April  

45 

October  

May  

45 

November  .... 

40 

June  

50 

December  .... 

40 

“Furthermore,  it  is  agreed  that  if  at  any  time  during  the  year 
said  part  of  the  first  part  shall  discharge  said  party  of  the  second  part, 
or  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall  quit  his  job,  the  party  so  doing 
shall  forfeit  to  the  other  one-half  the  difference  between  wages  at  the 
rate  of  $45  per  month  for  the  time  worked  and  the  amount  paid  accord- 
ing to  the  above  schedule  of  monthly  payments. 

“It  is  further  agreed  that  if  for  any  reason  either  party  shall 
terminate  this  contract,  settlement  shall  be  made  according  to  the  afore- 
said provisions,  and  that  the  })arty  so  terminating  the  contract  shall 
give  the  other  ten  days’  notice  in  advance  of  such  action,  or  if  not,  he 
shall  forfeit  to  the  other  $10  in  addition  to  the  forfeit  mentioned  above.” 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


23 


The  real  difficulty  with  wage  scales  conies  from  the  fact  that  the 
other  farmers  are  hiring  by  the  year  or  season  and  paying  uniform 
wages  throughout.  As  long  as  hired  men  can  get  elsewhere  the 
same  $45  for  January  work  as  for  July  work,  although  it  is  worth 
far  less  on  the  market,  they  will  refuse  to  work  on  the  usual  wage- 
scale  plan  which  allows  them  only  $25  or  $30  for  January. 

Bonuses.  Some  farmers  offer  their  men  a straight  bonus  of 
$10  to  $50  if  they  will  stay  the  year  out.  Often  $50  is  well  spent 
in  this  way  if  it  brings  the  desired  results. 

Bonuses  are  also  offered  on  condition  of  faithful  work.  Where 
farmers  do  not  try  to  buy  the  extra  service  and  enthusiasm  of  their 
hired  men  too  cheap,  and  use  judgment  in  bestowing  bonuses  upon 
the  right  sort  of  men,  good  results  usually  follow.  It  is  frequently 
better  not  to  promise  them  in  advance. 

Profit  sharing.  When  the  amount  of  extra  pay  depends  upon 
the  success  or  profits  of  the  farm  business  in  any  way,  then  the  plan 
is  profit-sharing  and  not  bonus-paying.  Giving  the  hired  man  a 
small  percentage  of  gross  sales  and  increase  in  inventory  is  perhaps 
the  easiest  way  to  figure  a share-profit  in  a general  farming  business. 
One  difficulty  here  is  that  gross  receipts  depend  upon  the  amount 
of  feed  used  and  purchased  and  the  labor  hired,  and  the  hired  man 
usually  has  no  authority  in  deciding  such  questions.  Another  diffi- 
culty is  figuring  the  increase  in  inventory.  Livestock  and  crops 
may  be  appraised  in  several  ways,  and  trouble  will  result  unless  the 
method  is  agreed  upon  in  advance.  Another  objection  is  that  profits 
in  farming  do  not  depend  on  any  one  yeaFs  business,  but  on  good 
farming  over  a long  term  of  years.  If  the  particular  year  is  un- 
favorable, there  may  be  no  return  on  the  books  of  the  business  for 
the  hired  man’s  extra  effort.  Perhaps  the  farmer  by  a poor  stroke 
of  business  may  wipe  out  all  the  extra  profits.  But  has  the  hired 
man  earned  these  losses  or  gains? 

The  only  kind  of  profit-sharing  that  works  well  is  one  in  which 
the  extra  effort  of  the  hired  man  counts  directly  into  the  profits 
which  are  to  be  divided.  For  example,  if  the  hired  m.an  is  engaged 
to  handle  a milk  route,  it  may  pay  well  to  give  him  a percentage 
of  the  gross  sales  of  milk,  or  if  he  is  a tobacco  hand,  he  may  be 
given  a percentage  of  the  crop  over  a certain  yield. 

On  a large  dairy  farm,  the  one  man  who  does  all  the  feeding 
might  be  paid  in  part  by  a share  in  the  gross  receipts  from  milk 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


minus  the  cost  of  purchased  feeds.  In  general,  such  schemes  are 
much  better  suited  for  paying  managers,  foremen  or  herdsmen  than 
for  paying  regular  hired  men. 

The  share  of  the  profits  should  always  be  in  addition  to  a definite 
cash  wage,  so  that  the  employee  shall  always  have  a minimum 
assured  income. 

Piece  work.  Some  work  on  the  farm  is  still  paid  for  by  the 
piece;  for  example,  corn  is  husked  by  the  bushel,  plowing  is  done 
by  the  acre,  wood  is  cut  by  the  cord.  Piece-work  wages  make  the 
laborer  work  harder  than  he  otherwise  would,  but  often  cause  care- 
less work.  Especially  if  the  rates  are  high,  an  extra  supply  of 
labor  needed  for  a short  time  can  be  attracted  in  this  way. 

Handling  the  Hired  Man 

Many  of  the  troubles  between  farmer  and  hired  man  arise  because 
neither  clearly  understands  his  duties  and  obligations  to  the  other. 
Some  of  these  obligations  are  matters  of  law,  others  simply  of  duty. 

MATTERS  OF  LAV^ 

1.  When  one  man  hires  out  to  another,  the  employer  is  boss, 
that  is,  he  has  the  right  to  direct  the  work  which  he  hires  done. 
The  workman  sells  this  control  over  his  activity  when  he  sells  his 
labor.  The  employer  is  also  usually  the  owner  of  the  property  with 
which  the  employee  works,  and  both  law  and  custom  give  to  the 
owner  of  property  almost  exclusive  control  over  it. 

2.  No  employee  can  be  made  to  work  for  any  employer  a 
minute  longer  than  he  wants  to,  that  is,  ^^specific  performance 
of  a labor  contract  cannot  be  enforced.’^  It  makes  no  difference 
whether  the  laborer  has  agreed  to  work  an  hour,  a day,  or  a year, 
if  he  wants  to  stop  working,  there  is  no  power  in  a free  country, 
except  perhaps  in  war-time,  which  can  make  him  work. 

3.  The  laborer  is  entitled  to  full  pay  for  all  the  time  he  works, 
and  can  collect  it  in  the  courts,  if  necessary.  If  a laborer  hires  out 
for  six  months  and  is  discharged  or  quits  of  his  own  will  in  two 
months,  he  can  draw  two  months’  pay.  Not  all  farm  employers 
understand  this  and  every  little  while  some  one  tries  to  hold  back 
some  part  of  a hired  man’s  wages  and  then  refuses  to  pay  it  if  he 
quits. 

There  are  often,  of  course,  some  difficulties  in  the  way  of  collect- 
ing full  pay  in  the  courts;  for  example,  in  many  cases  a man  is 
discharged  because  he  does  not  prove  to  be  what  he  reported  himself 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


25 


when  the  bargain  was  made.  In  such  a case  the  court  has  to  decide 
what  the  man  actually  earned  and  award  him  wages  accordingly. 

It  will  be  evident  that  it  is  very  foolish  for  either  party  to  go  to 
court  to  settle  a matter  of  this  kind.  The  sensible  plan  is  for  the 
farmer  to  discharge  a man  if  he  does  not  come  up  to  his  claims  and 
promises,  unless  the  man  will  make  a new  bargain,  but  to  pay  him 
the  full  amount  for  as  long  as  he  works  under  the  terms  of  the  bar- 
gain. 

4.  A laborer  is  liable  for  all  the  injury  he  does  by  quitting  a 

job  before  his  time  is  out.  If  a man  hires  out  for  a season  and  quits 
in  the  middle  of  haying  and  part  of  the  crop  is  spoiled  as  a result, 
he  can  be  sued  for  damages,  unless  he  can  prove  sufficient  cause  for 
his  quitting.  Unfortunately,  however,  such  a suit  would  ordinarily 
be  useless,  because  a judgment  against  a hired  man  ordinarily  has 
little  value.  It  is  also  hard  to  prove  that  the  employer  himself  has 
not  violated  the  contract  in  some  particular. 

5.  An  employer  cannot  be  made  to  employ  a laborer  longer 
than  he  wishes,  but  he  is  liable  to  an  employee  for  all  the  damage 
he  does  by  discharging  him  before  his  time  is  out.  This  damage, 
of  course,  cannot  exceed  the  amount  of  the  hire.  This  damage 
can  usually  be  collected  because  the  employer  generally  has  prop- 
erty, and  a laborers  claim  is  one  of  the  first  to  be  satisfied  in  case 
of  foreclosure. 

It  would  thus  seem  that  normally  employer  and  employee  are  on 
an  equal  footing.  Neither  can  be  forced  to  carry  out  the  terms  of 
a labor  contract;  the  employer  gets  the  services  and  the  laborer  gets 
his  wages  up  to  the  time  the  contract  is  broken,  and  each  is  liable 
for  all  the  damage  he  causes  to  the  other.  The  employer  is  boss, 
but  the  employee  does  not  have  to  work  a day  if  he  does  not  have 
fair  treatment.  He  cannot  even  be  sued  successfully  if  he  quits 
under  such  circumstances.  The  equality,  however,  is  not  actual  in 
many  cases,  because  on  the  one  hand  the  laborer  often  cannot  quit 
because  he  must  have  a job,  and  because  on  the  other  hand  the  pun- 
ishment for  breaking  a contract  does  not  reach  a laborer  except  in 
the  rare  cases  where  he  has  unexempted  property.  These  two  in- 
equalities need  providing  for  in  some  way  before  the  labor  problem 
can  be  said  to  be  solved  from  a legal  point  of  view.  If  not,  when 
labor  is  growing  scarce,  as  in  agriculture  at  present,  laborers  will 
be  free  to  quit  when  the  fancy  takes  him,  and  during  hard  times 
they  will  have  to  cling  to  their  jobs  no  matter  what  injustice  is  done 
them. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


Farmers  and  other  employers  nowadays  frequently  try  to  arrange 
for  payment  of  the  damages  in  advance  in  case  a laborer  quits  be- 
fore his  time  is  out.  One  method  is  to  pay  the  laborer  a bonus  if  he 
stays  out  his  time,  or  one  wage  if  he  stays  part  of  his  time  and  a 
larger  wage  if  he  stays  full  time.  Such  bargains  have  good  legal 
standing.  Another  bargain  frequently  made  provides  a certain  wage 
‘hf  the  laborer  stays  until  his  time  is  out,”  and  nothing  is  said  as  to 
what  he  will  get  if  he  does  not  stay.  Such  bargains  are  bad,  be- 
cause the  laborer  is  entitled  to  the  going  wage  for  what  time  he  does 
put  in  under  such  a bargain,  and,  furthermore,  the  courts  will  give 
it  to  him.  Such  a bargain  amounts  to  no  wage  having  been  agreed 
upon  in  advance  in  case  a laborer  quits. 

MATTERS  OF  DUTY 

If  farmer  and  hired  man  are  to  prosper  together,  they  must  do 
much  more  than  live  up  to  the  letter  of  the  law.  They  have  duties 
to  each  other  as  brother  men. 

1.  Hired  men  must  use  with  justice  their  right  to  quit  a job 

when  they  will,  and  farmers  similarly  their  right  to  discharge  a 
man  when  they  will.  ‘T  have  seen  a hundred  men  fired,”  said  one 
hired  man,  “and  never  one  of  them  was  given  more  than  time 
enough  to  pack  up  his  clothes  and  git.”  Freedom  of  action  presup- 
poses common  sense  and  justice  in  using  it,  and  if  men  do  not  seem 
to  possess  it,  the  only  remedy  lies  in  more  laws  and  more  restric- 
tions. 

2.  Hired  man  and  farmer  are  in  duty  bound  to  consider  each 
other’s  welfare.  The  farmer  should  be  interested  in  the  hired 
man’s  future.  He  should  help  him  to  save  his  money,  to  become 
a first-class  farmer,  and  to  get  started  for  himself  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. The  hired  man,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be  whiling  to 
work  as  hard  to  save  a load  of  hay  as  his  employer. 

3.  The  farmer  will  find  it  best  to  treat  his  hired  man  as  an 
equal.  All  men  are  not  equal  in  many  ways,  in  intelligence,  in 
knowledge,  in  wealth  and  in  experience.  Consequently  law^s  some- 
times have  to  be  made  to  protect  the  w^eaker  members  of  society. 
But  meeting  as  man  to  man  in  the  everyday  affairs  of  life,  on  the 
street  as  preacher,  bricklayer  or  merchant,  on  the  farm  as  farmer 
and  hired  man,  they  all  expect  to  have  their  rights  and  their  person- 
alities respected.  No  matter  how  unfortunate  in  their  lives,  few 
persons  are  without  some  spark  of  pride  of  self.  Those  things 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


27 


which  make  up  tlieir  own  selves  they  hold  sacred,  and  no  man  shall 
trample  on  them  and  not  be  cursed  for  it.  The  employer  who  so 
misuses  an  employee  need  not  expect  his  good  will  and  cooperation. 

Matters  of  ^Tsychology’’ 

Another  part  of  the  trouble  between  hired  man  and  farmers 
comes  because  they  no  longer  understand  each  otheFs  “psychology” 
— that  is,  neither  knows  how  the  other  thinks  and  feels  about 
things.  This  is  because  both  of  them  have  been  changing  rapidly, 
the  hired  man  especially.  Some  of  the  changes  in  the  psychology 
of  the  hired  man  are  these: 

1.  The  “standard  of  life”  of  the  hired  man  has  been  raised, 
even  more  than  that  of  the  farmer.  This  is  because  he  circulates 
freely  from  farm  to  farm  and  from  farm  to  city.  An  experience 
in  one  good  home  under  a good  employer  spoils  him  for  all  the 
others  he  may  come  to  later  which  are  not  so  good. 

2.  A “'standard  of  life”  has  to  do  with  work  as  well  as 
with  living.  Hired  men  will  not  drudge  as  they  used  to,  working 
long  hours  at  heavy  work,  in  filthy  farm  buildings,  and  in  all  kinds 
of  weather.  The  farm  hands  of  today,  except  the  newcomers, 
are  farther  removed  from  hard,  pioneer  life  than  the  farmer. 

3.  Farm  hands  are  more  particular  about  the  farm  on  which 
they  work.  They  want  all  the  modern  machinery,  because  it 
relieves  them  of  much  heavy  work,  and  because  it  makes  the  work 
much  more  interesting.  They  like  a farm  with  a good  herd  of 
cows,  good  horses,  and  a modern  barn. 

4.  Their  higher  standard  of  living  makes  them  want  more 
leisure  and  more  recreation.  They  want  good  clothes;  they  think 
they  are  just  as  much  entitled  to  have  a “girl”  as  the  city  fellow, 
and  they  want  to  be  able  to  compete  with  the  city  fellow  in  this 
respect  on  even  terms. 

5.  They  also  ask  for  better  and  more  cheerful  farm  homes 
and  better  lodging. 

6.  Along  with  a higher  standard  of  liivng  always  goes  a higher 
degree  of  self-respect  and  self-esteem.  The  hired  man  of  today 
demands  that  his  employer  shall  take  him  into  his  home  as  an 
equal,  treat  him  respectfully  on  the  job,  address  him  in  civil  lan- 
guage, give  him  orders  without  a show  of  authority,  correct  him 
simply  and  quietly,  listen  to  his  opinions,  and  otherwise  leave  him 
upon  his  own  responsibility  as  much  as  possible. 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


The  farmers  mean  exactly  this  sort  of  thing  when  they  say  that 
the  hired  men  are  ‘^more  independent/^  They  are  independent 
because  they  have  more  respect,  and  because  they  can  find  other 
jobs  whenever  they  are  not  respectfully  used.  It  must  be  admitted, 
however,  that  many  hired  men  do  not  understand  what  respectful 
treatment  means  and  take  advantage  of  it, 

7.  It  takes  a hired  man  longer  now  to  save  the  money  needed 
to  begin  farming.  Young  men  do  not  usually  save  unless  they 
have  some  prospect  just  ahead  of  them.  As  a result,  many  hired 
men  are  merely  marking  time  and  waiting  for  something  to  open 
up  for  them.  Such  men  are  restless,  reckless  and  irresponsible. 

8.  Those  who  expect  to  become  farmers  are  not  working  out  to 
save  money  so  much  as  to  earn  their  spending  money,  keep  busy 
till  their  parents  or  some  landlord  is  ready  to  stake  them,  and 
meanwhile  learn  as  much  about  farming  as  they  can.  The  most 
that  many  of  them  expect  to  save  is  enough  to  buy  furniture  and 

* perhaps  a team. 

9.  Because  it  is  experience  they  are  after  more  than  the  saving 
of  money,  these  young  men  often  prefer  not  to  work  too  long  at 
one  place.  They  want  to  work  for  successful  farmers  and  for 
several  of  them  so  as  to  get  all  the  farming  ideas  they  can. 

10.  Fewer  hired  men  than  formerly  are  deeply  interested  in 
their  work.  One  reason  is  that  fewer  of  them  are  looking  forward 
to  farming  as  a life  work.  Also  many  of  them  spend  more  time 
in  thinking  about  their  good  times  than  about  their  work,  and 
refuse  to  let  work  get  in  the  way  of  their  evening  recreation.  The 
majority  of  hired  men,  however,  are  just  as  much  interested . in 
farming  as  ever,  but  not  so  much  interested  in  the  success  of  their 
particular  employers. 

Two  Eules  eor  Fair  Dealing 

There  are  two  important  mles  for  dealing  with  hired  men. 
1.  Be  careful  not  to  hurt  their  self-respect.  This  rules  out 
such  practices  as  these: 

Swearing  at  hired  men  or  calling  them  abusive  names. 

Eidiculing  them.  Sarcasm  cuts  deepest'  of  all. 

Dictating  to  them  on  all  occasions,  instead  of  leaving  as 
much  as  possible  to  their  judgment.  Instructions  must 
be  given  respectfull}",  and  the  fewer  orders  given  the 
better.  The  main  job  of  the  manager  is  to  lay  out  the 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


29 


work  for  the  day  and  then  assign  to  each  workman  the 
part  which  he  is  to  do. 

Talking  about  their  faults  and  mistakes  with  the  neighbors. 

Letting  the  women  folks  help  do  the  bossing. 

Giving  the  hired  men  all  the  menial  or  unpleasant  tasks, 
such  as  waiting  upon  members  of  the  family.  The  time 
is  far  past  when  a farmer  can  safely  sit  in  the  house  in 
nasty  weather  while  the  hired  man  husks  corn  or  splits 
wood.  The  farmer  who  plays  fair,  however,  usually  finds 
hired  men  willing  to  do  their  share  of  anything. 

‘^Calling  them  down^^  for  their  mistakes,  instead  of  explain- 
ing to  them  what  is  wanted.  A good  man  is  sensitive 
about  his  mistakes,  and  a wise  employer  respects  his  feel- 
ings. Corrections  should  be  made  quietly,  and  in  the 
form  of  off-hand  suggestions,  if  possible. 

Making  them  live  in  servant  quarters,  kitchens  or  the  like. 

Patronizing  them.  This  is  unconscious  most  of  the  time. 
When  an  employer  feels  himself  of  superior  clay,  he  can 
hardly  keep  it  out  of  his  manner  and  his  voice.  Others 
patronize  by  trying  too  hard  to  please  the  hired  man, 
making  too  much  fuss  over  him,  all  of  which  makes  him 
decidedly  uncomfortable.  All  that  is  needed  is  a simple, 
frank,  natural  manner,  like  that  of  two  neighbors  talking 
over  crops  together. 

2.  Always  manage,  somehow  or  other,  to  retain  the  respect  of 
your  hired  men.  If  you  cannot  make  your  hired  men  respect  you, 
better  not  have  any,  for  they  will  do  you  no  good.  Such  things 
as  unbecoming  conduct,  loss  of  temper,  and  violent  language  always 
lessen  the  hired  man’s  respect  for  his  employer.  No  farmer  can 
make  a fool  of  himself  and  still  keep  his  hired  men  feeling  right 
toward  him.  Some  farmers  debase  themselves  in  the  eyes  of  their 
men  by  dishonest  business  methods;  others  by  talking  about  their 
neighbors;  others  by  unkindness  in  the  home;  others  by  boastful 
talking,  or  by  bad  manners. 

It  is  also  true  in  this  connection  that  “familiarity  breeds  con- 
tempt.” A farmer  may  mix  with  his  men  on  the  basis  of  absolute 
comradeship  and  succeed  splendidly.  In  fact,  this  is  often  the  very 
best  plan.  But  in  most  cases  this  is  hard  because  of  differences 
in  age  and  experience.  Consequently  a certain  amount  of  reserve  is 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


often  advisable.  The  principal  element  in  reserve  is  not  talking 
too  much.  A farmer  can  plan  his  work  with  his  men  if  he  wishes, 
and  in  most  cases  will  find  it  advisable  to  do  so,  and  yet  at  the 
same  time  hold  back  his  own  judgment  and  keep  his  own  counsel 
•in  such  a way  as  not  to  offend. 

Substitutes  for  Labor 

If  a farmer  cannot  get  labor  and  keep  it  by  any  of  the  means 
suggested,  then  he  will  have  to  make  his  farm  business  fit  labor 
supply;  To  do  this  he  can : 

1.  Plan  his  work  from  day  to  day  and  month  to  month  so  as 
to  save  effort  and  keep  up  with  the  season.  Most  important  of  all 
is  to  get  done  during  the  winter  every  last  bit  of  ^^get-out-of-the- 
way”  work,  even  if  it  means  hiring  labor  for  it.  The  general  rule 
for  good  management  is  always  to  do  next  that  thing  which  is  most 
important  to  be  done  next. 

2.  Exchange  work  much  more  freely  with  his  neighbors  than 
he  has  done  in  the  past. 

3.  Select  his  crops  so  that  too  many  of  them  do  not  need  to 
be  taken  care  of  at  the  same  time. 

4.  Use  more  machinery  and  horses  and  buy  only  the  truly 
labor-saving  kind  of  machinery.  Eeduce  the  expense  of  it  by  go- 
ing in  on  shares  with  a neighbor  whenever  possible.  • There  is 
enough  machinery  that  is  true  and  tried  to  keep  the  farmer  busy 
buying  for  some  time  yet.  Even  with  tractors  and  milking  ma- 
chines, it  is  well  to  be  cautious  and  go  slow.  The  next  important 
step  in  the  use  of  power  on  the  farm  is  making  better  use  of  horses. 
Such  machinery  as  the  gang  plow,  drawn  by  four  or  five  horses, 
and  the  three-  and  five-horse  harrow,  would  save  much  man-labor 
on  Wisconsin  farms. 

5.  Choose  crops  and  livestock  taking  less  labor.  Substitute 
corn  for  peas  and  tobacco,  small  grain  for  corn,  or  pasture  for 
field  crops.  Buy  a milking  machine,  or  'exchange  some  of  the 
milk  cows  for  hogs,  sheep  or  steers.  This  will  usually  mean  farm- 
ing somewhat  under  the  most  profitable  degree  of  intensity,  and 
hence  losing  money,  but  it  is  better  to  suffer  a small  loss  than 
a larger  loss.  Oftentimes  a better  plan  is  one  of  the  two  following: 

6.  Rent  or  sell  some  of  his  land  to  some  farmer  who  has  the 
labor. 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


31 


7.  Exchange  his  farm  for  a smaller  one,  for  a farm  of  such 
size  that  he  can  work  it  himself,  leaving  the  hired  help  to  those 
able  to  manage  it  more  successfully. 

The  Farm  Hand's  Hours 

Table  VI  summarizes  reports  made  in  July,  1916,  upon  the 
average  workday  of  260  farms  in  Wisconsin.  The  figures  in  the 
third  column  are  made  on  the  basis  of  32  weeks  of  summer  work 
and  20  weeks  of  winter  work.  The  workday  in  the  field  during 
the  crop  season  was  9 hours  and  54  minutes.  This  table  is  based 
upon  general  estimates  made  by  the  farmers  themselves.  Table 
VII  presents  results  obtained  in  connection  with  careful  cost 
accounting  on  10  general  farms  and  12  dairy  farms  in  the  state. 
If  these  results  were  based  upon  enough  farms,  or  representative 
farms,  they  would  be  more  accurate  than  the  results  in  Table  VI. 
The  11.52  hours  given  as  the  average  workday  of  hired  men  in 
Table  VII  is  equal  to  11  hours  and  31  minutes.  Thus  the  final 


Table  VI. — Average  Day  of  Hired  Men  on  260  Farms  in  Wisconsin 

IN  1916 


Length  of  day 
Time  for  meals 
Time  in  field 
Time  at  chores 
Workday 


In  summer 


In  winter 


Both 


14  hours 

1 hour  30  minutes 
9 hours  54  minutes 

2 hours  36  minutes 
12  hours  30  minutes 


12  hours  48  minutes  13  hours  30  minutes 
2 hours  1 hour  42  minutes 


10  hours  48  minutes 


11  hours  48  minutes 


results  are  very  nearly  the  same  in  the  two  tables.  The  hours 
reported  in  Table  VI  probably  include  many  hours  and  days  lost 
from  work  because  of  bad  weather,  illness,  trips  to  town,  holidays, 
and  so  forth. 

Table  VII  reports  much  shorter  summer  workdays  and  somewhat 
longer  winter  workdays  than  does  Table  VI.  This  is  probably 
because  the  farms  reported  in  Table  VII  are  much  better  managed' 
than  ordinary  farms  and  hence  keep  more  regular  hours  both  sum- 
mer and  winter.  Only  progressive  farmers  are  enough  interested' 
in  cost  accounts  to  keep  the  necessary  records.  For  this  reason, 
the  figures  in  Table  VII,  although  accurate  for  tlie  22  farms,  do 
not  represent  usual  conditions  so  well  as  the  figures  in  Table  VI. 

Table  VII  gives  the  average  workday  of  the  farm  proprietors 
as  10  hours  and  41  minutes,  which  is  50  minutes  less  than  the- 
hired  men’s  workday.  The  hired  men  average  4 hours  and  55 
minutes  of  Sunday  work,  and  the  proprietors  4 hours  and  59 
minutes  of  Sunday  work.  Both  week-day  and  Sunday  hours  are- 
somewhat  longer  on  dairy  farms  than  on  general  farms. 


Table  VII. — Average  Weekday  and  Sunday  Hours  of  Work  for  Hired  Men  and  Proprietors  on  10  General  Farms 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


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♦The  data  in  Table  Vll  were  furnished  by  O.  A.  Juve,  then  in  charge  of  farm  cost  accounting  work  at  the  College  of 
Agriculture,  in  cooperation  with  the  Office  of  Farm  Management  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


33 


Let  us  assume  that  hired  men  work  300  days  a year  at  weekday 
hours,  50  of  the  remaining  days  at  Sunday  hours,  and  take  15 
days  off  altogether.  They  would  then  be  working  3700  hours 
a year.  City  workers  in  mills  and  factories  in  the  cities  and  villages 
of  the  state,  large  and  small,  were  averaging  9 hours  and  50 
minutes  a day  in  1916.  Carpenters  were  averaging  9 hours  a day. 
To  these  hours  must  be  added  the  time  spent  going  to  and  coming 
from  work  in  the  cities.  This  varies  greatly  with  the  size  of  the 
cities  and  the  place  of  residence  of  particular  laborers.  In  370 
cities  and  villages  in  the  state  with  less  than  10,000  inhabitants, 
50  to  60  minutes  a day  is  a fair  average  for  the  time  required 
both  in  going  to  and  coming  from  work.  In  the  18  cities  above 
10,000  in  the  state,  most  of  which  have  street  car  service,  60  to  70 
minutes  is  a fair  average.  One  hour  a day  seems  to  be  a safe  aver- 
age for  the  whole  state.  On  this  basis,  the  factory  worker  puts  in 
10  hours  and  50  minutes  a day,  or  3250  hours  in  a work-year 
of  300  days  and  the  carpenter  put  in  10  hours  a day,  or  3,000 
hours  in  300  working  days. 

Several  conditions  on  the  farm  make  difficult  any  movement 
toward  shorter  hours. 

1.  The  larger  part  of  the  farm  work  is  done  by  the  farmers 
themselves  and  their  families,  who  are  willing  to  work  long  hours 
in  order  to  make  more  money  and  pay  off  their  debts.  The  owners 
and  their  families  thus  set  a pace  for  the  hired  men.  The  hired 
men  have  been  farmers’  sons  themselves  in  most  cases,  and  have 
taken  the  long  hours  for  granted. 

2.  The  larger  crops  which  farmers  produce  by  working  longer 
hours  bring  lower  prices.  At  the  low  prices  thus  obtained,  the 
farmer  who  does  not  work  long  hours  cannot  pay  for  his  farm. 
Farmers  never  get  the  things  which  they  have  to  buy  enough 
cheaper  wholly  to  make  up  for  cheapening  their  own  products  by 
long  hours  of  labor. 

3.  Farmers  must  keep  pace  with  the  season  and  work  accord- 
ing to  the  weather.  This  makes  the  load  of  work  uneven  from 
month  to  month  and  day  to  day,  and  gives  the  habit  of  working 
long  hours  a fine  chance  to  establish  itself. 

4.  The  returns  from  farming  in  such  a climate  as  ours  are 
limited  by  the  amount  of  work  that  can  be  done  at  rush  seasons 
and  in  good  weather.  If  horses  must  be  fed  all  winter,  they  must 
be  worked  as  long  hours  as  possible  in  summer.  Farm  work 


:34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


so  depends  on  the  weather  that  sometimes  an  extra  hour  at  night 
is  worth  $10  to  the  farmer. 

Though  the  hours  should  be  somewhat  shorter  than  at  present, 
nevertheless  they  do  not  need  to  be  the  same  as  city  hours,  for 
two  reasons,  one  that  farm  work  is  out  of  doors  in  the  fresh  air 
where  long  hours  are  much  easier  to  endure,  the  other,  that  the 
farm  hand  is  willing  to  work  long  hours  when  the  drive  is  on,  if 
he  gets  his  share  of  vacations  from  time  to  time  when  the  work  is 
not  so  pressing. 

A reasonable  day.  Many  farmers  are  today  managing  on  an 
1134-hour  workday  in  summer  and  a ,10-hour  day  in  winter.  Still 
more  are  getting  along  on  12  hours  in  summer  and  10 34  hours  in 
winter.  Few  people  who  understand  farm  conditions  will  object 
to  1134  hours  or  even  12  hours  in  summer. 

Following  is  the  way  in  which  one  farmer  breaks  up  11^ 
hours  of  work  in  summer : 


5:00—  6:30 
6:30—  7:00 
7:00—12:00 
12:00—  1:00 
1:00—  5:00 
5:00—  6:00 
6:00—  6:30 


Milking  and  chores. 
Breakfast. 

Field  work. 

Dinner  and  “nooning.” 
Field  work. 

Milking  and  chores. 
Supper. 


This  division  of  the  day  gives  9 hours  for  field  work,  234  hours 
for  chores,  and  2 hours  for  meals.  Milking  comes  at  the  same 
time  night  or  morning.  It  gives  234  hours  in  the  evening  for  rest 
and  recreation  and  allows  8 hours  sleep  before  5 o’clock  the  next 
morning.  The  9 hours  for  field  work  will  seems  short  to  many 
farmers,  and  undoubtedly  the  teams  ought  to  work  longer  hours 
-at  busy  periods.  Chores  and  milking  are  done  in  less  time  on 
many  farms,  and  on  others  the  teams  are  kept  in  the  field  934 
hours  a day  by  having  family  help  do  more  of  the  chores.  Many 
things  are  to  be  said  in  favor  of  milking  before  supper,  although 
it  is  not  the  usual  practice. 


The  Hired  Man's  Home 


Hired  men  ask  for  a home  where  they  are  treated  like  members 
■of  the  family.  They  ask  for  it,  most  of  them,  more  than  they 
ask  for  wages.  Recently  more  farms  are  being  operated  by  well- 
to-do  folks,  and  more  farm  hands  are  strangers,  floaters,  and  hobos. 
This  condition  makes  the  old  family  relationship  less  agreeable  and 
harder  to  maintain. 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


35 


The  plan  followed  on  many  rich  men’s  large  farms  is  to  have 
one  of  the  farm  hands  who  is  married  board  and  lodge  the  rest. 
This  seems  like  an  ideal  solution  to  many  people,  especially  to  city 
farmers.  \\Tiere  the  family  furnishing  the  board  and  lodging  is 
that  of  a manager  or  foreman,  the  plan  frequently  works  well 
indeed.  Often,  however,  a ‘Tenant  man”  does  it  at  so  much  a 
week  and  does  it  cheaply.  The  tenant  man’s  house  is  poorly  built 
and  poorly  furnished,  and  his  home  uninteresting.  Furthermore,, 
such  an  arrangement  sets  up  a distinct  line  of  cleavage  between 
farmer  and  laboring  class,  which  is  sure  to  make  for  ill-feeling- 
between  them.  The  fact  of  the  matter  is,  a good  intelligent  hired 
man  thinks  he  deserves  to  be  taken  into  the  farmer’s  own  home, 
and  no  doubt  he  is  right. 

Taking  a neighbor’s  son  into  your  home,  however,  and  making 
him  a member  of  your  family,  is  not  as  easy  as  it  might  be.  If 
the  man  of  the  house  is  of  the  right  sort,  the  home  always  calm 
and  cheerful,  all  will  go  well.  But  suppose  the  husband  and  wife 
constantly  bicker?  Suppose  there  are  several  ill-trained  children? 
Suppose  the  husband  spends  his  time  “knocking  his  neighbors” 
or  grumbling  about  his  hard  luck  ? Suppose  the  wife  takes  a hand 
at  running  the  farm  ? The  intimacy  of  the  farm  household  brings 
folks  very  close  together,  and  one  of  them,  the  hired  man,  is  a 
stranger  when  he  comes.  Thus  there  are  many  chances  for  things 
to  go  wrong. 

Society  and  recreation.  Not  only  do  hired  men  want  a liome,. 
but  they  want  society  along  with  it.  “Our  men  do  not  lack  for 
recreation,”  writes  one  farmer,  “we  live  within  forty  rods  of  a 
church  and  a country  store.”  Such  a situation  seems  to  furnish 
the  very  ideal  of  entertainment  in  the  minds  of  many  farming 
folks.  Following  is  a list  of  farm  hand’s  amusements,  ranged  in 
the  order  of  their  importance,  based  upon  the  reports  of  about 
tiirce  hundred  farmers  and  tlieir  hired  men : Going  to  town 

(movies,  saloons,  soda  fountains,  street  gadding)  ; going  to  see  the 
girl;  dancing;  reading;  auto  and  motor-cycle  riding;  fishing  and 
hunting;  holidays;  visiting  parents;  sleeping  (Sunday  “naps”); 
playing  Sunday  baseball;  card  playing  and  games;  going  to  Sun- 
day ball  gam.es;  swimming;  entertainments;  surprise  parties  and 
socials;  church  going;  phonograph  music. 

Apparently  after  a week  of  hard  work  and  long  hours,  the  hired 
man,  if  he  is  not  tired  out,  wants  something  with  more  snap  and 


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excitement  in  it  than  a church  service,  a social,  or  an  entertain- 
ment. Young  men  are  bound  to  seek  the  society  of  the  opposite 
sex  and  they  find  a dance  the  best  place  to  be  sociable.  They 
also  want  good  red-blooded  sport  like  hunting,  playing  baseball, 
motor-cycle  riding  and  swimming.  They  go  to  town  because  of 
their  craving  to  see  people  again  after  being  isolated  on  the  farm 
for  a whole  week.  When  they  get  there,  the  movies,  soda  foun- 
tains, and  street  gadding  are  the  leading  forms  of  amusement. 

Livening  the  home.  The  first  place  to  look  to  in  order  to  put  a 
little  more  cheer  in  the  hired  man’s  life  is  the  farm  home.  If 
the  home  life  of  the  farm  family  were  what  it  should  be,  fewer 
of  the  hired  men  and  farmer’s  own  sons  would  be  running  to 
town  or  gallivanting  over  the  country  looking  for  a girl.  There 
ought  to  be  more  hospitality,  more  neighborly  visiting  in  the 
evening  and  especially  on  Sundays,  more  music  and  singing;  or 
if  card  playing,  games,  and  dancing  be  indulged  in  by  the  family, 
the  hired  man  ought  to  be  the  kind  of  fellow  to  mix  in  all  these 
things  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  farmer’s  family.  There  are 
neighborhoods  where  this  kind  of  home  life  still  prevails,  espe- 
cially in  the  winter,  when  there  is  more  time  for  recreation. 

But  the  hired  man  is  always  going  to  seek  some  form  of  public 
amusement.  Most  of  this  can  be  produced  right  in  the  country. 
Entertainments  can  be  made  popular  if  the  young  men  and 
women  do  the  entertaining  instead  of  the  school  children.  There  is 
room  in  the  larger  farmhouses,  churches,  and  schoolhouse  for  . 
dances  and  entertainments;  but  what  is  really  needed  is  a country 
clubhouse  with  an  auditorium,  dining  room,  kitchen,  gymnasium 
and  lounging  room.  There  is  no  reason  why  a town  and  country 
should  be  kept  apart  from  each  other  in  their  fun-making.  A 
good  place  for  some  of  it  is  in  the  small  villages.  A ^Town- 
conntry  ^‘^club”  may  be  better  than  a country  club. 

Of  course  the  first  essential  to  interesting  entertainment  for 
the  country  }nung  man  is  the  country  young  woman.  So  many 
of  the  farm  girls  go  to  the  cities  these  days  that  the  young  men 
really  have  to  travel  to  the  city  to  find  them.  But  more  farm 
girls  would  stay  in  the  country  if  life  were  more  pleasant  there 
and  more  could  be  seen  of  the  young  men. 

The  reading  furnished  the  hired  man  has  greatly  improved 
since  the  advent  of  rural  mail  delivery  and  the  daily  newspaper. 

In  addition  to  the  daily  papers  and  the  weeklies,  a few  good 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


37 


periodicals  and  good  story  books  are  needed  badly  in  many  homes. 

Better  living -conditions.  Living  conditions  are  not  what  they 
should  be  in  many  farm  homes.  The  ration  is  still  too  much  salt 
pork  and  potatoes,  in  many  cases.  Many  farmers  have  wretched 
gardens,  no  strawberries  and  small  fruits,  and  no  orchard  at  all. 

In  some  cases  the  hired  men  are  not  allowed  to  use  the  living 
room,  and  they  have  no  place  to  stay  in  winter  save  the  kitchen 
or  their  beds.  Again,  farm  work  is  often  of  the  kind  that  gets 
a man  dirty  all  over,  and  hence  on  the  farm  more  than  anywhere 
else,  a man  ought  to  be  able  to  clean  up  before  meals  and  wash  off 
completely  after  the  night  chores  are  done  before  sitting  down 
for  the.  evening.  Lastly,  sleeping  rooms  are  often  unusually  cold 
in  winter  and  without  adequate  ventilation  in  summer. 

The  “tenant  house.”  The  house  in  which  the  tenant  farm 
laborer  lives  is  oftentimes  a disgrace.  The  average  rent  of  60  of 
them  was  estimated  by  their  owners  at  $6.25  a month.  Of  course 
rent  in  the  country  is  cheap  because  building  lots  cost  very  little. 
They  average  five  or  six  rooms,  but  one-third  of  them  have  three 
rooms  or  less.  Some  are  larger,  but  in  wretched  condition,  being 
old  farmhouses  abandoned  by  their  owners.  The  newer  ones  are 
usually  cheaply  built.  Of  late,  married  farm  laborers  being  scarce, 
many  tenant  houses  have  fallen  into  decay.  But  the  prospects  at 
present  are  for  a considerable  increase  in  married  farm  laborers. 
New  cottages  are  already  being  built,  better,  no  doubt,  than  the 
old  ones. 

Year-round  Work  for  the  Hired  Man 

Nothing  else  is  half  so  important  in  keeping  farmers’  sons  at 
home  as  steady  year-round  work.  Farm  boys  are  actually  driven 
from  the  farms  every  winter  because  they  cannot  get  work  there, 
or  can  get  it  only  at  meager  wages.  The  old-fashioned  day  hand 
has  been  forced  out  of  the  country  altogether.  If  these  men  could 
get  steady  work  winter  and  summer  they  would  be  in  the  country 
when  they  are  wanted.  We  have  seen  that  farm  wages  are  $15 
a month  lower  in  some  counties  than  in  others  and  yet  the  young 
men  stay.  It  is  not  low  wages  that  drives  the  farm  hands  away 
in  most  cases — it  is  unemployment,  which  for  the  married  man 
means  near-starvation. 

In  260  farms  in  Wisconsin  in  1917,  there  were  263  men  hired 
by  the  year,  214  for  the  season  only,  usually  from  April  to  Novem- 


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her  or  December,  and  230  more  employed  for  day  work  or  for  a 
month  or  two  in  haying,  harvesting,  and  silo-filling.  The  labor 
force  on  these  260  farms  by  months,  counting  in  the  farmer  and 
his  family  at  320,  is  indicated  in  figure  6.  The  distribution  is 
very  irregular,  even  when  the  farmer  is  counted  in,  but  if  we 
consider  it  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  hired  man,  it  is  decidedly 


FIG.  6.  LABOR  FORCE  BY  MONTHS  ON  260  FARMS  IN  WISCONSIN 

IN  1916. 

These  farms  are  above  the  average  in  size.  For  the  summer  months,  the 
figure  is  the  average  number,  not  the  total  number  employed. 


SO.  The  part  of  the  diagram  which  represents  the  work  done  by 
hired  labor  is  filled  in  with  dots.  It  shows  that  444  of  the  707 
farm  hands  must  find  other  work  during  a part  of  the  year,  214 
of  them  for  the  winter  months,  and  230  for  all  but  a month  or 
twm  in  the  rush  of  haying  and  harvesting.  For  those  who  work 
on  farms  for  the  crop  season,  favorite  winter  occupations  are : 
logging,  saw-mill  work,  factory  and  shop  work,  paper-mill  work, 
chopping  wood,  ice-cutting,  clearing  land,  mining,  quarrying,  hay- 
pressing,  and  tobacco-stripping  and  sorting.  The  lumber  camps 
and  sawmills  draw  from  the  northern  half  of  the  state,  the  zinc 
mines  in  the  southwestern  counties,  and  the  factories  in  the  rest 
of  the  state.  Many  farmers’  sons  still  go  home  to  their  folks  and 
loaf  for  the  winter. 

Of  the  day  hands  and  the  hay  and  harvest  hands,  a few  are 
casual  farm  laborers  living  in  the  country  or  country  villages, 
others  are  casual  city  laborers  piecing  out  the  year  with  a little 
farm  work,  others  are  city  laborers  who  spend  their  vacations 
on  farms,  others  are  boys  and  retired  farmers  who  do  not  work 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


39 


for  the  rest  of  the  year,  and  the  rest  are  hobos  and  transients  who 
migrate  to  the  ^cities  for  the  winter. 

What  the  farmers  can  do  to  help.  Providing  steady  work  for 
hired  men  is  too  big  a job  for  any  farmer  to  tackle  alone,  but  if 
each  farmer  who  can  nse  an  extra  man  all  winter  without  serious 
loss  will  manage  to  do  so,  the  situation  will  be  greatly  improved. 
A farmer  can  afford  to  be  public-spirited  and  sacrifice  a little,  for 
the  present,  in  this  matter.  Following  are  a number  of  ways  of 
evening  out  the  yeaFs  work: 

1.  Winter  dairying.  The  labor  force  on  91  summer  and  91 
winter  dairy  farms  is  compared  in  Table  VIII. 

By  the  “peak  load”  is  meant  the  largest  number  of  men  employed 
at  any  one  time.  On  the  summer-dairy  farm,  this  is  nearly  twice 
the  winter  force,  but  on  a winter-dairy  farm,  it  is  only  about 
one-half  more.  However,  109  of  the  year  men  on  the  summer- 
dairy  farms  and  120  on  the  winter-dairy  farms,  are  the  farmers 
and  members  of  their  families,  and  these  may  do  any  amount  of 
loafing  in  the  winter  months  on  the  summer-dairy  farms.  The 
actual  work  done  is  far  less  than  these  figures  indicate.  Milking 
and  chores  oii  many  winter-dairy  farms  keep  the  full  summer 
labor  force  reasonably  busy  all  winter.  The  reason  that  many 
farmers  in  the  poorer  sections  of  the  state  object  to  winter  dairying 
is  that  they  would  rather  loaf  all  winter  than  take  care  of  milk 
cows.  Cheese-making  is  the  reason  in  other  places.  Nevertheless, 
winter  dairying  is  greatly  on  the  increase,  even  in  the  cheese  sec- 
tions of  the  state. 


Table  VIII. — Labor  Force  on  91  Summer-dairy  Farms  and  on  91 
Winter-dairy  Farms  in  Wisconsin,  1916 


Men  by 
the 
year* 

By  the 
season 
only 

By  the 
day 
only 

“Peak 

load’’ 

Acres 

in 

farms 

Milk 

Cows 

Slimmer  dairy 

168 

80 

80 

318 

220  • 

151/2 

Winter  dairy 

260 

46 

55 

307 

224 

17 

♦Includes  the  farmer  and  his  family  help. 


2.  Silage  and  root  crops  enable  farmers  .to  keep  a great  deal  of 
livestock,  the  feeding  of  which  requires  much  labor  in  the  winter. 

3.  Time  and  labor  spent  in  the  winter  in  careful  and  frequent 
feeding  and  watering  of  milk  cows,  in  cleaning  their  stalls  care- 
fully, and  in  keeping  productions  records,  bring  big  returns  with 


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good  animals,  and  are  the  basis  of  finding  which  are  the  more 
profitable  cows  in  the  herd. 

4.  Much  more  could  be  done  in  the  way  of  repairing  and  manu- 
facturing than  is  now  done  if  all  farms  had  warm  workshops  equip- 
ped with  forges,  lathes,  and  an  assortment  of  tools.  Too  many 
farmers  now  put  off  till  summer  much  repairing  that  might  be 
done  in  winter.  It  may  even  be  that  farmers  could  undertake  the 
manufacturing  of  certain  light  articles  easily  hauled. 

5.  More  road  w^ork  and  barn  building  can  be  done  during  the 
open  parts  of  winter. 

6.  The  winter  is  a good  time  to  take  a city  boy  as  a farm  ap- 
prentice and  train  him  to  handle  horses  and  livestock. 

THE  LONG-TIME  SOLUTION  OF  THE  FAEM  LABOR 

PROBLEM 

The  final  solution  of  the  farm  labor  problem  depends,  as  has 
been  pointed  out,  upon  permanent  measures.  Of  the  many  meas- 
ures suggested,  some  are  not  to  be  recommended  for  American 
agriculture. 

A Permanent  Class  of  Farm  Laborers 

The  solution  of  the  farm  labor  problem  suggested  by  European 
conditions  is  a permanent  class  of  farm  laborers.  The  farm  labor- 
ers of  Europe  live  from  generation  to  generation  in  little  cottages 
at  corner  crossroads  or  in  villages  and  usually  work  a little  patch 
of  land,  big  enough  for  a garden  and  a cow,  whenever  they  are  not 
needed  on  the  neighboring  farms.  Such  a system  is  not  at  all 
suited  to  present  American  conditions.  Most  of  us  hope  it  will 
never  be  suited  to  American  conditions.  We  think  it  better  to  have 
all  our  farm  hands  trying  to  climb  the  agricultural  ladder  even  if 
they  do  not  succeed  than  it  is  to  have  them  settling  down  content- 
edly in  little  homes  of  their  own.  We  may  expect  to  have  married 
farm  laborers,  but  the  farmers  will  build  and  own  the  cottages  in 
which  they  live.  Few  laborers  expect  to  work  for  a farmer  indef- 
initely. Farms  are  too  far  apart  for  a laborer  to  change  his  job 
without  moving  his  family. 

A permanent  farm  laboring  class  can  farm  in  America  only  un- 
der two  conditions:  (1)  if  machine  agriculture  finally  proves 

unable  to  produce  the  food  supply  for  our  population,  so  that  in 
the  end  we  have  to  resort  to  hand  labor;  (2)  if  we  turn  to  large- 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


41 


scale  factory  farming.  Farm  land  may  so  increase  in  value,  if 
machine  production  proves  adequate,  that  the  poor,  the  ignorant 
and  the  improvident  cannot  own  enough  of  it  to  furnish  profitable 
use  for  machinery,  and  farm  laborers  will  therefore,  greatly  in- 
crease in  numbers,  but  this  will  not  ordinarily  mean  that  certain 
families  are  farm  laborers  from  generation  to  generation. 

Running  Farms  Like  Factories 

The  labor  unionises  solution  of  the  farm  labor  problem  is  large 
farms  run  like  factories  with  a large  gang  of  men  working  nine 
hours  a day  under  a boss.  The  odds  against  such  a system  are 
these : Crops  and  manure  have  to  be  hauled  too  far  on  large 
farms.  Farming  does  not  lend  itself  to  the  division  of  work  into 
the  little  easy  steps  and  stages  which  have  made  the  factory  system 
possible.  Instead,  all  the  men  have  to  be  working  at  the  same 
thing  at  one  time  and  at  different  things  at  different  times  of  the 
year.  Furthermore,  farm  work,  with  its  dependence  on  the  weather, 
its  large  area,  and  its  livestock  and  machinery,  is  hard  to  supervise. 
Last,  the  great  saving  from  family  labor  and  rearing  a family  on 
the  farm  has  always  put  the  large  farmer  using  hired  labor  at 'a 
serious  disadvantage.  For  all  these  reasons,  thus  far  the  managers 
of  moderate-sized  farms  have  generally  been  able  to  outbid  all  the 
others  for  land. 

If  large-scale  methods  develop  under  any  type  of  farming,  it 
will  be  because  the  economies  of  using  new  types  of  large  machines 
become  enough  to  outweigh  the  difficulties  mentioned.  Even  then, 
we  are  likely  to  have  the  farm  work  organized  in  small  units  of  a 
few  hundred  acres,  each  with  its  own  set  of  buildings.  Under  such 
a system,  some  of  the  special  farm  work  can  be  done  by  gangs 
working  from  farm  unit  to  farm  unit. 

The  Back-to-the-Land  Movement 

A considerable  proportion  of  each  generation  of  farmers’  sons 
will  surely  migrate  to  the  city.  They  must  migrate,  for  ordinarily 
the  country  cannot  make  room  for  them  except  by  splitting  up  its 
farms  into  too  small  units.  Of  those  who  go  to  the  city,  a few 
will  always  come  back  to  the  farm  sooner  or  later.  In  some  cases, 
they  will  not  come  back  themselves,  but  will  send  their  sons.  This 
backflow  would  entirely  solve  the  farm  labor  problem  if  it  were 
always  in  proportion  to  the  excess  migration  to  the  city.  The  dif- 
ficulty is  that  once  in  the  city,  only  a few  return.  Hence  the  only 


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thing  to  do  is  to  try  to  keep  the  right  number  on  the  farms  in  the 
first  place. 

The  Family  Farm 

Under  present  conditions,  the  best  way  of  getting  labor  supply 
and  labor  needs  properly  balanced  is  on  the  basis  of  the  ‘Tamily 
farm,”  which  is  a farm  big  enough  to  be  worked  by  the  average 
farm  family.  While  the  children  are  small,  some  help  needs  to 
be  hired,  but  later  this  family  has  help  to  spare.  The  surplus 
laborers  of  one  family  do  the  extra  work  for  the  farmers  whose 
families  are  still  small.  Thus  the  family  labor  of  a community 
does  all  the  farm  work.  When  a neighborhood  has  to  begin  im- 
porting help  from  outside,  then  its  farms  are  above  family  size, 
and  a farm  labor  problem  arises. 

How  large  should  a family  farm  be?  This  will  depend  on  the 
size  of  the  family  and  the  kind  of  farming  practiced.  Let  us 
suppose,  for  example,  that  each  family  rears  to  maturity  five  chil- 
dren. Half  of  these,  on  the  average,  will  be  sons.  Suppose  these 
sons  go  to  school  up  to  their  nineteenth  year,  work  ^s  hired  men 
either  at  home  or  for  neighbors  till  26,  then  begin  farming  for 
themselves.  Suppose  that  the  farmer  himself  begins  farming  at 
26  and  retires  at  58,  his  children.averaging  26  years  of  age  at  that 
time.  Suppose  that  he  retires  on  his  own  farm  or  near  by,  so  that 
he  continues  to  help  as  much  as  he  is  reasonably  able  with  the 
farm  work,  and  that  his  father  has  done  the  same  before  him. 

Table  IX. — Land  Farmed  by  the  Usual  Amount  of  Help  (1.85 
Men)  in  Certain  Townships  in  8 Counties 
OF  Wisconsin  in  1915 


County 

Acres 

Crop  Acres 

Barron 

155 

83 

Dane 

149 

89 

Green 

191 

97 

Winnebago 

112 

72 

Wood 

250 

109 

Eau  Claire 

155 

94 

St.  Croix 

171 

95 

Walworth 

137 

76 

On  this  basis  the  farm  generation  will  be  32  years  long.  The 
‘‘^man-power’’  of  the  family  will  vary  greatly  from  year  to  year, 
as  the  grandfather  grows  old,  and  as  the  sons  grow  up  and  go  off 
to  farm  for  themselves;  but  if  the  boys  and  old  men  are  counted 
according  to  their  value,  for  each  of  the  32  years,  on  the  average, 
the  family  will  furnish  1.85  men  for  farm  work. 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


43 


Table  IX  shows  the  amount  of  land  actually  being  handled  by 
this  much  man-pow'er  in  certain  townships  in  various  counties  of 
the  state. 

The  average  for  the  whole  state  would  be  147  acres,  according 
to  the  census  of  1910.  The  average  farm  in  Wisconsin  in  1910 
contained  119  acres,  and  its  man-power  was  only  1.51  (see  Table 
I).  Hence  either  farm  families  must  average  less  than  five,  or  the 
sons  are  leaving  the  farm  before  they  are  26,  or  the  fathers  are  re- 


FIG.  7.  WHY  FARM  LABOR  IS  SCARCE 
The  heavy  black  figures  in  the  southern  counties  are  decreases  in  rural 
population  between  1900  and  1910.  The  light  figures  are  increases. 

tiring  to  the  city.  If  the  farm  labor  supply  is  to  be  maintained, 
at  least  two  of  these  conditions  must  be  changed.  A family  of 
four  children  or  even  three  reared  to  maturity  would  be  enough 
if  the  parents  and  all  the  sons  stayed  on. the  farm.  Our  farmers 


44 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


would  be  happier  and  more  of  a credit  to  themselves  if,  instead  of 
retiring  to  the  city,  they  bought  themselves  automobiles,  built  them- 
selves homes  on  the  corner  of  the  old  farm,  and  gave  their  sons  or 
their  tenants  the  benefit  of  their  aid,  wisdom  and  experience.  As 
for  the  farmers’  sons,  the  country  can  use  more  of  them  to  advan- 
tage at  the  present  time.  But  they  cannot  all  be  expected  to  re- 
main on  the  farm.  Figure  7 shows  what  has  been  happening  to 
our  farm  population  in  all  the  older  counties  of  the  state. 

Education  for  Farming 

The  right  sort  of  education  would  help  solve  the  labor  problem, 
first,  by  keeping  more  boys  on  the  farm,  and  second,  by  making 
each  farmer’s  son  a more  efficient  worker  and  more  successful 
farmer.  If  each  worker  produces  more,  then  fewer  workers  are 
needed.  Wages  tend  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  the 
product.  More  product  therefore  means  better  wages  and  better 
farm  incomes. 

The  education,  of  course,  needs  to  be  the  kind  that  will  make 
farmers.  In  particular,  schools  are  needed  where  the  big  boys  and 
the  hired  men  can  study  good  farming  in  the  winter  time  when 
the  work  is  slack.  High-school  agricultural  terms  should  be  made 
to  fit  the  farm  work.  If  farm  boys  were  allowed  to  begin  high 
school  about  November  15  each  year  and  quit  April  1,  they  could 
go  to  school  between  14  and  21  years  of  age  and  in  the  winters 
get  the  equivalent  of  a full  high-school  course. 


Table  X. — Value  in  1916  in  the  Country  and  in  the  City  of  the 
Extras  Furnished  Farm  Laborers. 


Single  men 

Board  and  lodging 
Washing 

Total 

Value  in  the 
Country 

Value  in  the 
City 

$219 

18 

$237 

$283 

24 

$307 

Married  Men 

$ 75 

$115 

House  rent 

40 

65 

Fuel 

i 36 

50 

Milk 

! 12 

14 

Butter 

20 

30 

Garden 

i 25 

30 

Eggs  and  poultry 

1 12 

16 

Meat 

— 

— 

Total 

1 $220 

$320 

Farm  Labor  in  Wiscoxsin 


45 


The  Hired  Man^s  Chances 

Improving  the  hired  man’s  chances  in  life  is  more  important 
than  everything  else  combined.  So  %r  as  actual  earnings  and 
savings  are  concerned,  however,  the  70ung  man  on  the  farm  has 
a better  chance  than  most  city  young  men.  The  chart  in  figure  8 
compares  the  annual  earnings  of  farm  and  city  workers  in  Wis- 
consin in  1916.  Loss  of  time  from  unemployment  has  been  rec- 
koned according  to  the  figures  given  in  the  chart.  The  farm  wages 
used  are  by-the-year  rates.  The  city  prices  for  the  extras  fur- 
nished by  the  farm  are  the  ones  which  should  be  used  whenever 
one  is  comparing  city  and  farm  incomes.  Table  X gives  the 


CLASS  OF  WORKERS 

FARMERS 

AT  COUNTFW  PRICES 

AT  CITY  PRICES 
FARM  LABORERS 
SINGLE 

AT  COUNTRY  PRICES 
AT  CITY  PRICES 

FARM  LABORERS 

MARRIED 

AT  COUNTRY  PRICES 
AT  CITY  PRICES 

CARPENTERS 

MILLS,  FACTORIES, 
STREETS,  ETC. 

FARM-CITY  LABORERS 

AT  COUNTRY  PRICES 
AT  CITY  PRICES 

19.000  WORKERS 
TRADES  IN  51  CITIES 

13.000  WORKERS 

MOSTLY  MEN,  CARRYIMG 
COMPEMSATION  INSURftMCE 


EARNINGS  IN  DOLLARS 

CASH  PROVIDED  BY  FARM 


FIG.  8.  ANNUAL  EARNINGS  OF  FARM  AND  CITY  WORKERS  IN 
WISCONSIN  IN  1916 

In  the  bars  representing  farm  wages,  the  cross-hatched  parts  Indicate  the 
value  of  living  furnished  by  the  farm,  these  being  figured  at  both  city  and 
country  prices. 


46 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


value  of  these  extras  separately.  The  value  of  these  extras  has 
increased  greatly  since  1916,  but  the  increase  has  been  at  the  same 
rate  in  the  city  and  in  the  cpuntry.  Hence,  the  comparison  is  just 
as  true  as  if  it  were  made  in  1918  prices.  The  values  placed  upon 
the  extras  furnished  by  the  farm  are  very  moderate. 

In  figuring  the  farmer’s  income,  interest  on  the  farmer’s  invest- 
ment is  deducted,  and  also  wages  for  the  family  help  used  on  the 
farm.  If  these,  together  with  the  rise  in  the  value  of  the  farmer’s 
land,  are  added  to  the  farmer’s  income  given  in  figure  8 the  annual 
family  earnings  amount  to  $1400  for  the  average  farm  in  the  state, 
and  to  at  least  $400  more  for  the  more  valuable  farms  in  the  south- 
ern counties. 


Climbing  the  Ladder 

Thus  the  real  outlook  and  chance  in  life  for  hired  men  is  not  as 
hired  men,  but  as  farm  owners.  It  is  the  prospect  of  owning  a 
farm  which  in  the  past  has  made  farm  hands  willing  to  work 
longer  hours  than  city  workers.  What  about  these  prospects  at  the 
present  time?  The  figures  in  Table  XI,  taken  from  the  census, 
show  that  fewer  young  men  are  passing  from  laborers  to  farm 
owners.  Thus  there  were  94  more  farm  laborers  in  1910  than  in 
1880  in  each  1000  farm  workers,  25  more  tenants,  and  119  fewer 
owners.  Fewer  laborers  are  getting  to  be  tenants  and  fewer  ten- 
ants to  be  owners. 


Table  XI. — Number  of  Each  Class  of  Agricultural  Workers  in 
Each  1,000  in  Wisconsin,  1880  to  1910 


Census  year 

Laborers 

Tenants 

Owners 

1880 

292 

65 

643 

1890 

332 

88 

580 

1900 

332 

94 

574 

1910 

386 

90 

524 

Total  gain  or  loss 

+94 

+25 

—119 

Table  XII. — Comparing  the  Progress  of  Present  Owners  and  Present 
Tenants  on  Townships  in  Several  Counties  of  Wisconsin 


Tenants 


Age  becoming 
a tenant 


Owners 


Age  becoming 
an  owner 


County  Years 

Green  28.8 

Dane  28.3 

Rock,  Walworth,  29.7  . 

Jefferson,  Dane  

Average  29. 2 


County  Years 

Winnebago  32.4 

Walworth  31.7 

Dane  33.2 


Average 32.9 


Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin 


47 


Table  XII  compares  the  progress  of  present  owners  and  present 
tenants.  It  shows  that  the  tenants  of  the  present  generation  in 
these  townships  have  only  3.7  years  in  which  to  bny  farms  if  they 
are  going  to  keep  np  with  the  generation  preceding.  They  will 
probably  require  more  extra  time  for  this  step  than  they  did  for 
the  first  step.  For  example,  the  present  farmers  in  the  Dane 
County  township  were  tenants  only  5 1/5  years,  but  the  present 
tenants  have  already  been  tenants  6^  years,  and  probably  will  re- 
main tenants  four  or  five  years  more.  Similarly,  the  Creen  County 
tenants  have  already  been  renting  for  5 3/5  years. 

Why  It  Takes  Longer 

There  are  three  reasons  why  it  is  becoming  harder  for  farmers 
to  climb  the  ladder  to  ownership : first,  hired  men  do  not  save  as 
well  as  they  did;  second,  land  values  have  risen  faster  than  wages; 
and  third,  the  amount  and  cost  of  the  equipment  and  livestock 
needed  by  a tenant  has  increased  more  than  wages. 

Hired  men  find  saving  harder  today  than  formerly  because  their 
standard  of  living  has  been  raised  so  that  their  clothing  and  their 
recreation  all  cost  much  more  than  they  did.  During  1916-17, 
several  hundred  hired  men  were  asked  how  much  money  they  ‘^do 
spend^^  and  ^^need  to  spend.”  According  to  the  average  of  their 
answers,  they  need  to  spend  $139  a year  and  they  actually  do  spend 
$243  a year.  Thus  the  hired  man  earning  the  average  wage  of 
$360  per  year  in  1916  had  only  $117  left  from  his  year’s  wages. 


Table  XIII. — Capital  Needed  to  Begin  Farming  in  Several  Counties 
OF  Wisconsin  in  1914  and  1915 


Cash  Rent 

Share  Rent 

Number  of  farms 

45 

148 

Acres  in  farms 

152 

191 

Value  of  real  estate 

$14,800 

$21,400 

Value  of  working  capital 

$ 2,790 

$ 4,570 

Working  capital  of  tenant 

1 $ 2,790  • . 

$ 2,690 

Working  capital  of  landlord 

none 

$ 1,900 

The  value  of  the  average  farm  in  Wisconsin  was  two-thirds  more 
in  1910  than  in  1900,  and  one  and  one-half  times  as  much  as  in 
1880.  Farm  wages,  on  the  other  hand,  increased  only  one-half 
from  1900  to  1910,  and  only  two-thirds  from  1880  to  1910.  The 
average  value  of  livestock  and  machinery  on  a farm  was  five- 
eighths  more  in  1910  than  in  1900  and  nearly  three  times  as  much 


48 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  316 


as  in  1880.  Table  XIII  gives  the  value  of  the  real  estate  and  the 
personal  property  on  a large  number  of  rented  farms  in  Wiscon- 
sin in  1914  and  1915.  These  farms  are  above  the  average  in  size. 
Eented  farms,  however,  usually,  are  somewhat  larger  than  owner- 
operated  farms;  they  need  to  be  to  insure  a tenant  a good  living. 
Of  course  a tenant  can  sometimes  make  a start  with  somewhat  less 
capital  than  is  indicated  by  Table  XIII.  He  can  buy  second-hand 
machinery  and  poorer  livestock,  and  if  he  begins  in  the  spring,  he 
does  not  need  to  have  a winter’s  supply  of  feed  on  hand.  How- 
ever, in  1916,  200  farmers  in  Eock,  Dane,  Jefferson,  and  Walworth 
counties  estimated  that  it  would  take  $1,980  to  begin  farming  on 
a 120-acre  farm  at  share  rent  where  the  tenant  furnishes  all  the 
machinery  and  horses  and  half  the  cattle  and  hogs.  Of  course  in 
counties  farther  north,  where  the  landlord  furnishes  more,  and 
less  livestock  is  kept,  the  tenant  needs  much  less  capital. 

Relief  measures.  The  thing  that  would  help  young  men  on  the 
farm  most  is  to  stop  the  drain  of  farm  wealth  away  to  the  city 
by  inheritance.  Better  credit  would  also  help  greatly.  Landlords 
themselves  are  helping  a great  deal  in  this  respect.  The  200  farm- 
ers mentioned  estimated  that  an  honest,  industrious  tenant  can 
borrow  three-fifths  of  the  $1,980.  Many  landlords  today  are  will- 
ing to  stake  a man  they  know  for  nearly  the  whole  amount.  Prob- 
ably $500  to  $1,000  is  all  the  cash  that  a.  really  good  farm  hand 
actually  needs  in  order  to  begin  farming  in  the  best  counties  of 
the  state  today.  At  cash  rent  he  will  perhaps  need  $400  to  $500 
more. 

It  would  seem  that  the  state  and  nation  could  loan  this  amount 
of  money  to  any  young  man  of  twenty-five  years  or  over  who  has 
an  agricultural  education,  three  years  of  valuable  service  as  a farm 
laborer,  and  $600  or  more  of  savings. 


[etiri  31  r 


THE  PROMISE  OF  A CROP— BUT  AN  OFF-YEAR  AS  WELL 
Very  heavy  blossoming  is  associated  with  irregular  bearing.  Fewer 
blossoms  give  as  much  fruit  and  a chance  for  some  each  year 


; MADISON 


£"'EXPERIMENT  station 
ilVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


DIGEST 


Biennial  bearing  appears  to  be  related  to  nutritional  conditions. 
Overbearing  is  not  the  cause  of  the  off-year.  Thinning  the  fruit 
does  not  give  regular  bearing.  Pages  3 to  7. 

Fruit  spurs  have  a very  short  growth  period.  The  blossom  buds 
form  nearly  a year  before  blossoming.  Pages  8 to  9. 

The  spurs  act  largely  as  individuals.  Pages  10  to  11. 

Blossom  bud  formation  depends  upon  nutrition.  It  is  related  to 
spur  length.  Fruitfulness  is  also  related  to  spur  length.  Pages  12  to  18. 

Biennial  bearing  is  related  to  si)ur  growth;  regular  bearing  to 
both  tree  and  spur  growth.  Pages  19  to  25. 

A ci'op  of  fruit  may  be  borne  when  35  per  cent  of  the  spurs  blos- 
som. Blossom  spur  formation  on  second  year  wood  is  important 
to  regular  bearing.  Pages  25  to  26. 

The  ciiltui'al  jjractices  should  be  based  on  the  spur  and  tree 
growth.  Cultivation  is  not  always  needed.  A quickly  available 
nitrogenous  fertiizer  is  often  needed.  Pages  27  to  30. 

Pruning  has  a marked  effect  upon  spur  growth.  Pages  31  to  34. 


Off-year,  Apple  Bearing 
and 

Apple  Spur  Growth 

R.  H.  Roberts 

Off-year  bearing  of  apples,  as  with  Wealthy  trees  in  Wiscon- 
sin, is  generally  considered  a tree  habit  that  cannot  be  altered 
through  cultural  means.  Growers  have  commonly  believed  that 
there  is  no  way  to  strike  a balance  between  a big  crop  in  the  on 
year  and  a small  crop  in  the  off-year.  Observation  of  alternate 
bearing  orchards  for  the  last  five  seasons,  however,  leads  to  the 
suggestion  that  this  habit  is  largely  due  to  nutritional  conditions. 
At  least,  there  are  five  facts  to  suggest  the  view  that  biennial 
bearing  is  not  a fixed  habit  of  the  trees. 

(1)  Off-year  trees  have  been  made  to  bear  in  succession  by 
experimental  means.  (2)  Removal  of  the  blossoms  before  the 
fruit  sets  has  resulted  in  successive  blossoming.  (3)  Removal 
of  the  leaves  has  stopped  blossom  bud  formation.  (4)  Orchards 
of  annually  bearing  trees  exist.  (5)  Following  the  freeze  of 
1910  the  on  year  changed  from  the  even-  to  the  odd-numbered 
year.  This  occurred  with  all  varieties. 

A close  relationship  has  been  found  to  exist  between  the  spur 
growth  of  a tree  and  fruitfulness,  or  rather,  blossom  bud  forma- 
tion. This  is  true  of  trees  of  regularly  bearing  varieties,  off- 
year  varieties,  regular  trees  of  off-year  varieties,  and  off-year 
trees  of  regularly  bearing  varieties.  This  fact  lends  further 
weight  to  the  view  that  irregular  bearing  may  be  modi- 
fied if  the  proper  growth  conditions  • can  be  created.  Under 
average  conditions  of  nutrition  the  production  of  blossoms  and 
the  setting  of  fruit  greatly  limits  the  fruit  spur  growth  in  the 
fruiting  year.  The  result  is  a sort  of  biennial  growth  cycle  that 
occurs  with  a regularity  which  has  caused  the  off‘-year  to  be  con- 
sidered generally  as  a fixed  tree  character. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


Varieties  Have  Different  Fruiting  Habits 

Most  varieties  of  apple  trees  fruit  in  a way  that  might  be 
prophesied  from  their  spur  growth  conditions.*  Different  trees 
have  unequal  powers  to  respond  to  given  nutritional  conditions. 
It  is  apparent,  then,  that  different  treatments  would  be  necessary 
to  produce  any  given  result,  such  as  regularity  of  bearing.  In 
fact,  it  would  doubtless  take  impractical  treatments  to  secure  the 
desired  response  with  some  varieties,  although  with  Wealthy  the 
response  seems  obtainable  through  wholly  practical  means.  The 
Wealthy  has  been  most  studied  in  Wisconsin,  although  observa- 
tions have  been  made  upon  other  varieties,  such  as  Duchess, 
Transparent,  Northwestern,  Fameuse,  McIntosh,  Jonathan, 
Winesap,  and  York.  Biennially  fruiting  trees  of  these  varieties 
have  growth  conditions  similiar  to  those  found  for  Wealth^a 

Overbearing  Is  Not  the  Cause  of  the  Off-year 

Many  suggestions  have  been  made  to  explain  the  occurrence  of 
biennial  bearing.  One  of  the  most  common  theories  is  that  the 
tree  needs  a rest  after  bearing  a heavy  crop  of  fruit.  If  this  is 
true  it  is  only  in  an  indirect  way,  as  removal  of  the  fruits  any 
time  after  they  have  become  as  much  as  a half-inch  in  diameter 
seldom  results  in  the  fruit  spurs  fruiting  in  successive  years. 
Also,  Wealthy  trees  having  one-half  of  the  spurs  blossoming 
have  been  found  to  produce  an  average  of  more  fruit  than  trees 
with  nine-tenths  of  the  spurs  blossoming,  and  yet  the  former  aic 
likely  to  fruit  the  next  season.  This  difference  in  yield  is  due 
to  the  difference  in  percentage  of  blossoms  setting  fruits. 

While  overbearing  is  apparently  not  the  direct  trouble,  excess 
blossoming  may  be  said  to  be  the  cause,  since  a blossoming  spur 
on  Wealthy  seldom  blossoms  two  years  in  succession,  regardless 
of  whether  it  bears  a fruit  or  not.  Consequently,  if  practically 
all  of  the  spurs  blossom  one  season  none  of  them  fruit  the  next. 

While  excessive  blossoming  is  associated  with  the  off-year,  it 
is  not  the  cause,  as  it  is  itself  an  effect  of  nutrition.  It  is 
probably  better  to  say,  then,  that  nutritional  conditions  which 
cause  the  formation  of  extreme  numbers  of  blossom  buds  tend 
1o  give  off-year  bearing.  (See  page  12.) 

* The  persistently  unfruitful  tree  is  an  exception,  as  its  case  does  not  seem 
capable  of  ready  analysis  from  a study  of  external  growth  conditions. 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


5 


Thinning  Does  Not  Result  in  Regular  Bearing 

Overbearing  having  been  considered  a prime  factor  in  the 
irregular  fruiting  of  apples,  it  seems  a logical  conclusion  that 
thinning  the  fruit  would  tend  to  result  in  regular  bearing. 
Experiments  have  repeatedly  shown, ^ however,  that  commer- 
cial thinning  of  the  fruit  does  not  have  the  effect  expected. 
Limited  work  in  connection  with  the  present  studies  gave  the 
same  negative  result  from  thinning. 

Since  the  period  of  blossom  bud  formation  in  Wisconsin  was 
determined  by  Goff^  the  reason  for  the  failure  of  the  thin- 
ning to  induce  successive  bearing  has  been  apparent.  Practi- 
cally all  apple  blossom  buds  can  be  seen  to  have  differentiated  by 
July  5 to  July  10  in  Wisconsin.  If  the  bud  has  not  changed  to 
a blossom  bud  by  that  time  it  remains  as  a so-called  leaf  bud. 
It  is  clear,  then,  that  thinning  the  fruit  has  no  effect,  as  it  is  not 
done  until  about  the  time  the  blossom  buds  can  be  seen  to  have 
formed,  which  is  certainly  too  late  to  affect  conditions  deter- 
mining their  differentiation.  With  Wealthy,  the  removal  of  all 
the  young  fruits  any  time  after  they  have  ‘‘set”  fails  to  give 
successive  bearing. 

The  Climate  Has  Been  Blamed  For  the  Off-year 

Pickering^  reports  that  the  weather  of  England  has  a sort  of 
biennial  cycle  which  he  considers  to  be  associated  with  biennial 
bearing  of  dwarf  trees.  Macoun"^  offers  the  same  suggestion 
regarding  alternate  bearing  in  Canada.  Whipple/  suggests  that 
winterkilling  of  the  blossom  buds  may  cause  off-years  in 
Montana. 

These  climatic  influences  do  not  seem  to  be  causes  of  irregular 
])earing  as  occurring  in  Wisconsin. 

Two  other  climatic  conditions  are  suggested  as  of  more 
significance  to  the  local  situation  than  those  referred  to.  One  is 
the  short  growing  period  which  is  usually  accompanied  by 

1 Auchter,  E.  C.  Va.  A^r.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  162.  1917. 

2 Goff,  E.  S.  Wis.  A«r.  Exp.  Sta.  Rpt.  16:280.  1 899. 

••  PickerinpT,  S.  U.,  and  Duke  of  Eerlford.  VVoVuirn  Exp.  Fruit  Faiun  Rpt. 
1.5:8.3.  1916. 

♦ Macoun,  \V.  T.  Off-crop.s  aiul  their  cause.^.  Ann.  Rpt.  Fruit  Grower.^’ 
A.s.soc.  of  Nova  Scotia,  p.  103.  1917. 

® Whipple,  O.  P>.  Montana  Ay:r.  lOxp.  Sta.  P>ul.  91. 


6 


AYiscoxsin  Bulletin  317 


rather  high  temperatures.  The  other  is  the  relation  of  climate 
to  the  production  of  available  nitrates  in  the  soil.  A third 
might  be  added  if  enough  were  known  about  it,  namely,  the 


FIG.  1.  SPUR  GROWTH  IS  COMPLETED  EARLY  IN  THE  SEASON 

This  has  an  important  relation  to  soil  fertilization.  Quickly  available  fertilizers 
applied  early  are  of  value  to  increase  spur  growth.  See  figure  2. 


relation  of  the  short  growing  period  to  spring  root  development, 
as  affecting  absorptive  power. 

The  growing  period  is  usually  very  short  in  ^Visconsin.  The 
vegetative  spurs  less  than  a half-inch  long  usuallj^  complete 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


7 


their  growth  in  length  by  the  time  the  tree  comes  into  full  blos- 
som. This  is  frequently  not  more  than  8 to  10  days  after  the  buds 
are  well  broken  although  it  was  much  longer  in  1919  (fig.  1) . Tlie 
growth  in  1919  was  above  average.  The  average  annual  growth 
of  non-blossoming  spurs  for  five  years  was  as  follows : 1915,  5.23 
millimeters;  1916,  4.86  millimeters;  1917,  6.0  millimeters;  1918, 
5.53  millimeters;  1919,  8.14  millimeters. 

The  usual  high  temperatures  of  the  earl}^  growing  season  are  a 
possible  cause  of  the  short  period  of  growth  in  Wisconsin.  In 


FIG.  2.  THE  RATE  OF  GROWTH  VARIES  FROM  SEASON  TO  SEASON 

A to  D rcprpsent  12  daj’s’  development  in  1917.  It  took  25  days  in  the  cooler  sea- 
son of  1!H9  to  obtain  a like  development,  E to  H.  Even  this  <liff9i'ence  in  rate  of 
growth  docs  not  change  the  kind  of  growth  sufficiently  to  vary  off-year  bearing. 

1917  the  minimum  temperature  for  five-  days  just  previous  to 
the  blossom  period  was  57°  F.  and  the  maximum  82°  F.,  with  a 
mean  for  the  period  of  68.6°.  For  five  days  in  1918  the  figures 
are:  minimum,  52°;  mean,  68.8°;  maximum,  81°.  In  the 
slower  growing  season  of  1919  the  minimum  was  45°,  mean 
53.8°,  and  maximum  68°.  (fig.  2). 

A 10-day  period  preceding  blossoming  had  a mean  of  53.3°, 
and  a 15-day  period  had  a 51.3°  mean,  the  range  being  from 
37°  to  68°. 

What  may  be  the  principal  climatic  factor  is  the  effect  of 
sjiring  weather  conditions  upon  nitrification  and  soil  fertility. 
There  arc,  on  the  average,  only  six  or  seven  weeks  between  the 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


time  of  the  spring  thaw  and  the  blossoming  of  the  trees.  This 
is  a cool  period  and  often  a rather  rainy  one.  Consequently  con- 
ditions are  poor  for  the  production  of  available  nitrates.  It  has 
been  found  that  there  is  little  available  nitrogen  in  the  soil 
until  late  in  May  or  after  blossom  spur  growth  is  completed.^ 
It  is  possible,  then,  that  the  local  climatic  conditions  have  a 
large  effect  upon  the  soil  fertility  and  thus  give  a limited  spur 
growth  which,  as  suggested  later  (page  19),  is  closely  related  to 
off-year  bearing  of  apple  trees. 


FIG.  3.  THESE  FRUIT  SPURS  ARE  QUITE  TYPICAL  OF  WEALTHY 

They  usually  blossom  every  other  year  (B)  although  they  may  blossom  in  succession 
(A).  Unless  cared  for  they  “run  out”  when  older  and  cease  to  blossom  at  all  (O).  See 
figure  4. 

The  Blossom  Buds  Form  Early 

Certain  characteristics  of  bud  formation  should  be  kept  in 
mind  when  considering  the  off-year  (piestion.  One  of  these  is 
the  time  when  the  blossom  buds  form.  Apple  blossoms  begin  to 
form  nearly  a year  before  they  actually  appear.  The  blos- 
som buds  can  be  distinguished  from  leaf  buds  by  microscopic 
examination  about  July  5 to  July  10.  The  blossoms  develop 
throughout  the  summer  and  early  fall,  and  become  ready  to  open 
when  favorable  growing  conditions  prevail  in  the  spring.  This 
fact  is  one  of  the  important  points  to  be  considered  when  plan- 
ning any  operation  or  cultural  practice  which  is  designed  to 

1 King,  P.  H.  and  Whitson.  A.  R.  Wis.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  93. 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


9 


affect  blossoming : the  treatment  must  be  given  in  the  early  part 
of  the  season  a year  before  the  blossoms  are  desired. 

Most  op  the  Blossom  Buds  Are  on  Spurs 

Apple  blossom  buds  are  generally  found  as  terminal  buds  on 
short  growths,  or  spurs  (fig.  3).  They  are  also  formed  on  the 
ends  of  longer  growths.  These  buds  are  spoken  of  as  terminal 
blossom  buds,  as  distinguished  from  the  buds  on  spurs.  In  some 


FIG.  4.  THE  APPLE  BLOSSOM  BUD  PRODUCES  TWO  KINDS  OP  GROWTH 


4'here  is  the  cluster  bass,  upon  which  the  blossoms  are  borne,  and  a secondary 
prowth.  This  latter  seems  to  function  larg-oly  aS  does  a vegetativ'e  spur  of  like 
dimensions.  This  possibility  has  an  important  relation  to  biennial  bearing.  ' 

cases,  and  especially  with  some  varieties,  lateral  blossom  buds 
are  formed.  In  fact  the  regular  blossoming  of  some  varieties 
is  quite  largely  due  to  this  habit  of  forming  buds  upon  the  new 
wood.  In  Wisconsin,  Wealthy  sets  few  fruits  from  lateral  buds, 
but  the  more  vigorous  trees  often  produce  considerable  fruit  on 
the  terminals. 

Apples  Have  “Mixed”  Buds 

A very  distinctive  and  important  character  of  apple  blossom 
buds  is  the  fact  that  they  produce  two  kinds  of  growth, — blos- 
soms and  a secondary  woody  growth  (fig.  4).  The  part  of  the 
new  growth  upon  which  the  blossoms  are  borne  is  termed  the 
cluster  base.  The  secondary  growth  is  produced  laterally 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


from  the  cluster  base.  This  growth  is  often  no  more  than  an 
axillary  bud.  It  is  generally  longer,  in  some  cases  a foot  or 
more  in  length,  especially  with  trees  which  bear  terminally.  The 
secondary  growth  is  sometimes  absent  on  weakly  growing  spurs. 


The  Spurs  Act  Largely  As  Individuals 


A second  important  characteristic  of  spurs  is  that  they  seem 
to  function  largely  as  individuals.  It  frequently  happens  that 
one  side  or  branch  of  a tree  blossoms  while  the  other  part  does 
not.  In  fact,  this  is  quite  the 


FIG.  5.  fruit  spurs  FUNOTION 
LARGELY  AS  INDIVIDUALS 


If  some  spurs  (3,  5)  fruit  one  year,  suc- 
cessive bearing  is  possible  through  others 
blossoming  in  the  alternate  year  (2,  4,  6). 


usual  condition  with  j\IcMa- 
hon.  The  growth  conditions 
on  these  parts  are  very  simi- 
lar to  those  of  separate  bien- 
nially bearing  trees.  Further 
observation  shows  that  the 
different  spurs  as  well  as  the 
larger  limbs  may  function 
differently.  (See  fig.  5.)  It 
seems  probable  that  even  the 
secondary  growth  of  the  spur 
performs  very  much  like  an 
individual  vegetative  spur. 
While  the  small  unit,  such  as 
a spur,  is  governed  largely  by 
quite  local  conditions,  it  can- 
not be  wholly  independent  of 
certain  general  conditions  to 
which  all  of  the  spurs  of  the 
tree  are  subject.  Thus  it  is 
found  that'there  is  also  a cer- 
tain mass  or  group  action  ap- 
parent in  the  functioning  of 
the  spurs. 

This  tendency  of  the  spurs 
to  perform  alike  is  especially 
noticeable  in  the  case  of  av- 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


11 


erage  heavily  blossoming  trees  where  the  spurs  do  not  usually 
form  a blossom  bud  in  the  season  they  are  blossoming.  If  as 
many  as  85  per  cent  of  the  spurs  are  blossoming,  it  is  unusual 
for  the  other  15  per  cent  of  spurs  to  form  a blossom  bud  even 


1 hough  they  are  vegetative, 
for  the  spurs  to  act  alike. 
However,  if  the  tree  has  few- 
er blossoming  spurs  and  as 
many  as  25  per  cent  or  30 
per  cent  are  non-blossoming, 
these  latter  may  act  as  a class 
and  form  blossom  buds  while 
the  fruiting  spurs  do  not. 
Such  a tree  has  both  kinds-  of 
spurs.  The  fact  that  some 
trees  do  not  perform  as  a unit 
with  either  all  or  no  spurs 
blossoming,  makes  annual 
bearing  possible  by  some 
spurs  blossoming  each  season. 


There  is  that  much  tendency 


Removal  of  the  Leaves 
Stops  Blossom  Bud  For- 
mation 


The  removal  of  the  leaves 
Prom  alternate  non-blossoming 
spurs  along  a branch  pre- 
vented these  spurs  from  form- 
ing blossom  buds  (fig.  6.) 
The  leaves  vv'ere  taken  off 
about  three  weeks  before  tlie 
time  blossom  buds  could  be 
seen  to  bo  forming  on  control 
spurs.  The  same  result  was 
obtained  for  three  different 
years.  Other  experiments  in 
which  one-half  of  the  leaves 
wore  removed  from  all  of  the 


FIG.  0.  local  NUTKITIONAL  CONDI- 
TIONS SEEM  to  govern  BLOSSOM 
BUD  PORMA'ITON 

Removal  of  the  leaves  from  alternate 
spurs  (B,  d)  stopped  blossom  bud  forma- 
tion. Removal  of  half  the  leaves  from  all 
spurs  (A)  stopped  practically  all  blossom 
bud  formation.  Check  limbs  had  almost 
all  spurs  blossoming. 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


]2 

spurs  along  large  branches  resulted  in  nearly  complete  stopping 
of  blossom  bud  formation.  When  the  leaves  were  removed  at  a 
time  nearer  to  the  period  of  differentiation  little  or  no  effect 
was  not'ced  upon  the  number  of  blossom  buds  formed. 

The  effect  of  defoliation  is  probably  due  to  a stopping  or 
recluction  in  the  gathering  of  food  materials  by  the  leaves.  This 
checks  the  development  of  the  bud  on  the  spur  from  which  the 
leaves  were  removed.  ' 

It  is  believed  these  experiments  give  further  evidence  that 
the  spurs  function  largely  in  response  to  their  local  nutritional 
conditions.  They  would  also  indicate  that  blassom  bud  forma- 
tion, especially  in  a biennial  cycle,  is  not  a fixed  tree  character 
but  rather- that  it  is  the  result  of  rather  definite  conditions  of 
growth  or  nutrition.  This  leads  to  the  question  of  how  it  is 
possible  to  have  consistent  biennial  bearing  in  view  of  the  pro- 
position that  it  is  a vegetative  response  to  environment  and  not 
a plant  character. 

Blossom  Bud  Formation  Depends  Upon  Nutrition 

It  has  long  been  considered  that  apple  blossom  bud  formation 
is  conditioned  upon  the  presence  in  the  plant  of  an  abundance 
of  the  carbohydrate  substances  which  the  leaves  manufacture. 

■ A new  importance  has  been  given  to  this  proposition  by  the 
work  of  Kraus  and  Kraybill.^  They  propose  that  while  blossom 
formation,  at  least  with  the  tomato,  is  due  to  an  excess  or  abun- 
dance of  carbohydrates,  fruitfulness  is  probably  more  affected 
by  the  relation  or  ratio  of  these  substances  to  the  available 
nitrates  than  it  is  by  the  mere  accumulation  of  excess  carbohy- 
drates in  the  plant.  They  find  that  ‘‘nitrate-high”  plants  with 
available  carbohydrates  are  highly  vegetative  and  unfruitful; 
that  there  is  a rather  wide  range  of  plants  having  a condition  of 
balance  between  the  carbohydrates  and  nitrates  that  are  medium 
in  vigor  and  fruitful;  and  that  there  are  two  types  of  non-vege- 
tative,  non-fruitful  plants,  those  which  are  limited  in  carbohy- 
drates and  those  which  are  limited  in  nitrates.  Obviously, 
different  means  would  be  required  to  put  plants  of  these  two 
classes  into  a condition  of  balance. 


1 Kraus,  E.  J.  and  Kraybill,  H.  H.  Ore.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  149.  1918. 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


13 


The  carboli}Yrates  are  manufactured  by  the  leaves.  The  part 
of  this  material  which  is  not  used  immediately  is  stored  in  the  tree 
either  in  the  spurs  or  branches  near  where  it  was  formed,  or  at 
some  distance,  as  in  the  trunk  and  roots.  The  nitrates  are  in  the 
soil  moisture  and  are  taken  into  the  tree  through  the  roots. 
Thus’ the  lack  of  sufficient  moisture  to  carry  the  nitrates  might 
have  as  important  an  effect  upon  growth  as  would  the  absence  of 
nitrates. 

When  there  is  a relatively  large  amount  of  nitrates  available 
the  tree  makes  a large  amount  of  growth,  or,  as  we  say,  is  very 
vigorous.  The  result  is  the  using  up  of  the  carbohydrates  in 
growth  and  as  a consequence  there  is  not  a sufficient  amount  or 
excess  or  concentration  of  these  left  at  the  time  of  bud  differen- 
tiation for  the  blossom  buds  to  form.  This  is  typically  the  case 
in  young  trees  before  they  come  into  bearing  and  explains  the 
reason  why  vegetative  growth  is  thought  to  be  opposed  to  fruit- 
fulness. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  a tree  has  relatively  insufficient 
nitrate  and  makes  little  growth,  little  blossom  bud  formation 
occurs.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  over-blossoming  tree 
when  it  forms  no  blossom  buds  for  fruiting  the  next  year. 
Again,  if  the  tree  has  a relatively  balanced  food  supply  and 
m.akes  a moderate  growth,  blossom  buds  are  formed  in  abund- 
ance. This  condition  prevails  in  the  off-year  tree  which  forms 
blossom  buds  preparatory  to  producing  its  usual  overload  of 
blossoms  the  next  season. 

This  same  conception  of  fruitfulness  seems  to  have  equal 
application  as  an  explanation  for  the  fact  of  the  heavy  blos- 
soming of  root-pruned,  girdled,  or  injured  trees  or  parts  of 
trees:  the  transfer  of  carbohydrates  which  takes  place  in  the 
inner  bark,  outside  the  wood,  is  interrupted  and  the  result- 
ing concentration  of  these  substances  above  the  injury  causes 
blossom  bud  differentiation.  The  dying  tree  is  practically 
always  an  injured  tree  either  in  the  trunk  or  roots,  that  is,  it  is 
partly  girdled.  The  result  is  the  formation  of  blossom  buds. 
This  tree  does  not  set  about  to  form  them  in  order  “to  reproduce 
itself”;  it  cannot  help  it. 

It  might  be  expected  from  the  foi^egoing  discussion  of  the 
relation  of  tree  vigor  to  fruitfulness  that  there  would  be  spur 
growth  relationships  to  blossom  bud  formation.  Measurements 
of  over  3,000  spurs  shows  that  this  condition  does  exist  to  a 
marked  degree. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


*Fameuse,  Northwestern,  McIntosh,  York,  Winesap.  Secondary  grrowths  are  considered  as  vegetative  spurs. 
**  Without  secondary  growths.  All  data  in  bearing  years. 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


15 


CHART  I.  SPUR  GROWTH  CONDITIONS  ON  WEALTHY  IN  1918 

Most  of  the  short  spurs  (1-2  mm.)  had  leaf  bufls;  most  medium  lengths  (3-5  mm.) 
bore  blossoms  but  not  fruits,  and  most  of  the  longer  spurs  fruited.  Many  of  the  long- 
est spurs  had  terminal  leaf  buds. 


Blossom  Bud  Formation  Is  Related  to  Spur  Length 

Not  all  spurs  bear  blossoms.  Not  all  blossoming  spurs  bear 
fruits.  There  are  four  rather  distinct  classes  of  spurs  based 
upon  their  length  and  performance.  The  term  spur  has  been 
limited  to  growths  of  not  more  than  65  millimeters  or  about  2V2 
inches  in  length.  The  classes  of  spurs  and  their  average  length 
follow : 

1.  Terminal  leaf  buds  (short  spur  class),  average  length  2.55 
mm.j  Yg  inch. 


JC 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


2.  Blossom  buds  (non-fruiting  spurs),  average  length  4.28 

mm.,  about  3/16  inch. 

3.  Blossom  buds  (spurs  which  set  fruits),  average  length 

12.14  mm.,  % inch. 

4.  Leaf  buds  (long  spur  class),  average  length  18.14  mm.,  % 

inch  and  over. 

The  classes  of  spurs  are  not  absolute,  instead  they  blend  into 
each  other.  In  general,  however,  the  medium  length  spurs 
form  blossom  buds  while  the  shortest  spurs  rarely  do,  and  many 
of  the  longest  spurs  have  terminal  leaf  buds.  This  fact,  as 
shown  further  by  Table  I and  Chart  I,  is  of  fundamental  im- 


FKJ.  7.  SnUKS  WITH  SKVKKAL  J.EAVKS  HAVE  LONG  INTERNODES 

The  fact  that  spurs  with  more  than  8 leaves  have  long  intemodes  has  an  important 
relation  to  blossom  bud  formation.  More  of  the  shorter  spurs  have  blossom  buds. 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


17 


portance  to  an  appreciation  of  the  wholly  natural  way  in  which 
the  growth  conditions  account  for  the  off-year. 

Leaf  Area  Varies  With  the  Length  of  the  Spue 

As  the  length  of  the  spurs  increases  from  near  zero  to  one-half 
inch  the  number  of  leaves  and  especially  the  leaf  area  is  greatly 
increased  (fig.  7 and  Table  II).  As  the  spurs  become  longer 


Ta'{Le  B.— Relation  Between  Spur  Length  ard  Number  of 
Leaves  and  Leap  Area 


Lengtli  (inm.) 

Length  (in.) 

No.  of  leaves 

Area  per  spur 
(sQ.  in.) 

Are  1 per  leaf 
(sd.  in.) 

1 

1 1 

4.03 

3.89 

.97 

2 

5.66 

7.89 

1.39 

3 

2/16 

6.35 

9.21 

1.45 

4 

7.0 

12.64 

1.81 

5-6  . 

3/16 

7.23 

13  36 

1.85 

7-9 

5 16 

7.78 

16.16 

2.08 

10-12 

7/16 

8.25 

17.91. 

2.17 

13-15 

9 16 

8.57 

19.87 

2.32 

. 16-20 

12  16 

8.57 

20  11 

2.35 

21-25 

14/16 

8 75 

21.83 

2.38 

26-30 

1 1/8 

9.33 

21.0 

2.25 

31-40 

1 3,  8 

9.29 

24.07 

2.59 

41 -.50 

1 3 4 

9.0 

24.23 

' 2 69 

51-70 

2 3/8 

10.0 

27.2 

! 2.72 

71-100 

3 1/4 

10  33 

29  63 

1 2.87 

tlian  a half-inch,  or  those  liaving  about  8 leaves,  the  amount  of 
leaf  area  in  relation  to  the  length  is  greatly  reduced  because  of 
longer  internodes  nearer  the  terminal  end.  The  average  lengths 
of  spurs  having  different  numbei’s  of  leaves  are  (in  millimeters)  ; 
4 leaves,  .92;  5,  1.52;  0,  2.4b;  7,  4.2;  S,  U.b ; 9,  26.2;  10,  46.4; 
and  11,  108.  Tlie  marked  lengt  lieiiiiig  of  the  spurs  witliout  the 
addition  of  many  mor(*  leaves  is,  if  food  assimilation  is  the  maiji 
factor,  ai)parently  the  cause  of  medium  length  of  spurs  having 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


the  greatest  tendency  to  form  blossom  buds  (Table  III).  They 
hove  a greater  food-gathering  surface  for  the  amount’  of  spur 
length.  ^ I " i 

■ ■ r ^ ■ *4  4 

Other  Varieties  Perform  Like  Wealthy 

The  relation  or  ratio  of  length  of  spur  growth  to  blossom  bud 
formation  and  fruiting  is  not  a condition  peculiar  to  Wealthy. 
Similar  relations  are  found  in  the  case  of  other  Wisconsin 
varieties,  such  as  Oldenburg,  McIntosh,  Fameuse,  Transparent, 
and  Northwestern.  Yeager^  reports  a like  condition  in  Oregon 
and  Heinicke^  finds  a similar  thing  in  New  York.  Observation 
of  Jonathan,  York,  and  Winesap  in  Indiana,  Illinois,  and 
Missouri  shows  that  these  varieties  have  a similar  relation  of 
growth  to  fruitfulness  (Table  III). 


Table  III. — Relation  Between  Spur  Length  and  Fruitfulness 
IN  Different  Varieties 


V ariety 

Leaf  spurs 
1 (short) 

1 

Blossoming 
1 spurs 

Fruiting 

spurs 

Leaf  spurs 
(long) 

mm. 

mm. 

mm. 

mm. 

Wealthy 

2.55 

4.28 

12.14 

18.14 

McIntosh 

2.5 

3.65 

5.95 

38  05  . 

Northwestern 

2.4 

4.0  1 

6.1 

30.4 

Fameuse 

2.53 

5.72  j 

10.42 

14.8 

York 

2.27  i 

6.02* 

8.48 

22.72 

Winesap 

2.38 

6.44*  j 

9.13 

18.0 

* Frost  reduced  set  in  1919. 


The  differences  in  average  length  of  growth  of  the  different 
classes  of  spurs  are  more  pronounced  in  the  case  of  the  longer 
spurs.  This  may  vary  with  the  percentage  of  spurs  blossoming, 
different  aged  trees  and  other  factors.  In  fact  the  variation  in 
spur  growth  of  the  same  variety  from  season  to  season  shows  as 
much  difference  as  existed  between  the  different  varieties  (Table 
IV). 


^Yeager,  A.  F.  Ore.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  139. 

^Heinicke,  A.  J.,  N.  Y.  (Cornell)  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  393. 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


19 


Table  IV Seasonal  Differences  in  the  Relation  Between  Spur 

Length  and  Fruitfulness  of  McIntosh 


Length  inmrh. 

Class  of  spur 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

Leaf  spurs  (short) 

1.75 

1.95 

2.6 

1.7 

1.95 

1.6 

Blossominfr  spurs.' 

3.0 

2.5 

3.6 

3 5 

2.85 

4.0 

Fruitinff  sours 

7.15 

4.9 

7.6 

6.55 

5.1 

6.5 

Leaf  spurs  (long) 

45.0 

^ 39  0 

27.0 

27.6 

21.3 

36.5 

Biennial  Bearing  Is  Related  to  Spur  Growth 

The  relation  found  to  exist  between  spur  growth  and  fruit- 
fulness offers  a logical  explanation  for  the  off-year.  Observation 
of  the  spur  growth  made  by  biennially  bearing  trees  shows  that 
an  off-year  would  be  anticipated  from  the  nature  of  spur  growth 
being  made  by  the  tree  while  it  is  blossoming.  As  in  the  other 
observations,  the  previous  season’s  growth  is  the  point  upon 
which  the  attention  is  centered  because  the  spur  blossom  buds 
are  formed  as  terminal  buds  on  the  growth  made  nearly  a year 
before  the  tree  blossoms  the  next  spring. 

The  spur  growth  of  biennially  bearing  Wealthies  follows  a bi- 
ennial cycle  (Chart  II).  In  the  off-year,  as  many  as  85  per  cent 
to  90  per  cent  of  the  spurs  make  a growth  of  % to  % of  an  inch 
in  length.  Practically  all  spurs  of  this  length  form  blossom  buds, 
as  is  seen  by  the  load  of  blossoms  in  the  on  year.  Contrasted 
with  this,  when  the  tree  is  blossoming  practically  no  spur  or 
secondary  growths  are  of  the  sizes  which  form  blossoms  (see 
fig.  8).  Of  about  1000  secondary  growths  which  formed 
from  1916  to  1919  on  biennially  bearing  trees,  92.26  per  cent 
measured  were  less  than  3 mrn.  long  and  only  0.95  per  cent  were 
over  5 mm.  long,  or  of  the  size*  of  spurs  which  are  generally 
fruitful.  (See  Table  III).  In  other  words  practically  no  sec- 
ondary growths  form  blossom  buds,  although  on  trees  of  the 
usual  vigor  for  sod  orchards.  The  entire  question  of  biennial 
fruiting,  both  as  to  its  occurrence  and  possible  variation,  may 
center  in  this  matter  of  spur  growth,  especially  in  the  percent- 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


eoh 


1^60 


^0 


zo 


Ami/Ai  Bearing  Tree^ 

15.^ % over  lOm.m.  hnf 
33.63%  under  Sm.m.  •• 

Biennial  Trees 

Off  - YEA  R yeqetdtlve 
b.SZ%  over  10  m.m  hnO 
L.5l  fo  under  3 mm. 

On  ” YEA  R (s  econUari^  (froufths^ 

0 fo  over  /O m.rn.  hnp 
9o.Hfo  under  Srn.m.  •• 


Z 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10  II  tz  H 16  zo  25  30 

Length  in  m.m. 


CHART  II.  AVERAGE  SPUR  GROWTH  CONDITIOX  OF  WEALTHY  IN  1916-1919 

Biennially  bearing  trees  have  almost  all  or  no  spurs  of  blossoming  lengths  (3-12  mm.). 
Annually  bearing  trees  have  some  blossoming  and  some  non-blossoming  lengths. 


ages  of  average-length  or  blossom-forming  spurs  upon  the  tree 
each  year. 

J^KonrcTiON  OF  Blossoms  Limits  Secondary  Growth 

The  reason  that  bienniall}^  bearing  trees  are  able  to  produce 
sufficient  spur  growth  to  give  blossoms  one  season  and  not  the 
next  apparently  lies  in  the  effect  vdiicli  the  production  of  blos- 
soms has  upon  tlie  amount  of  secondary  growth.  The  effect  of  re- 
moving the  blossoms  upon  the.  secondary  growth  in  1919  is 
shown  by  Table  V. 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


21 


Table  V.  — Effect  of  Hlossom  Removal  Ufon  Secoxdaky  Guom'tii 


Secondary  growth 

Cluster  base 

Treatment 

Length 

No  of 

Leaf  area 

No  of 

Leaf 

(mm.) 

leaves 

(SQ.  in.) 

leaves 

art  a 

Blossoms  off 

3.81 

3.14 

6.38 

4.08 

3.01 

Check 

2.11 

1.6 

2.79 

4.06 

3.12 

The  data  in  Table  V would  indicate  that  the  leaf  area  pro- 
duced by  the  secondary  growth  was  less  by  more  than  one- 


FIG.  S.  PRACTICALLY  ALL  SECONDARY  GROWTHS  ARE  SHORT 

J.ik?  very  stiort  veg-^tative  .spurs,  seeonflary  growths  tail  to  form  blossom  buds.  Only 
two  (not9  arrows)  of  30  secondary  growths  were  more  than  3 mm.  (’^  in.)  long. 

half  when  the  spurs  were  allowed  to  develop  their  fruits  to  the 
dropping  stage  or  to  maturity.  This  marked  effect  of  blossoming 
upon  si)ur  and  leiif  develo}nnent  is  often  noticed  with  lieavily 
blossoming  trees.  Frequently  such  trees  have  little  foliage.  The 
natural  result  from  such  a condition  is  an  off-year,  in  view  of 
the  relation  between  blossom  bud  formation  and  spur  growth 
(Table  HI). 

Theoretically,  two  important  suggestions  as  to  how  off-year 
bearing  might  be  modified  would  follow  from  the  facts  just  (',011- 
sidered : (1)  Secure  a greater  secondary  growth  and 

some  blossom  bud  formation  uj)on  it,  giving  successive  bearing; 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


(2)  reduce  excess  blossoming,  as  it  occurs  in  Wealthy.  This  lat- 
ter would  seem  possible  if  more  than  the  average  spur  growth 
were  obtained  and  some  spurs  failed  to  form  blossoms.  Obser- 
vation of  regularly  bearing  trees  shows  that  they  are  regular  be- 
cause these  two  conditions,  among  others,  actually  prevail. 


FIG.  9.  SUC'OEiSSIVE  BLOSSOMING  SOMETIMES 
OCCURS 

This  is  true  on  vigorous  (iQng  and  thick) 
growths  (A)  and  generally  where  fruit  has  failed 
to  set  (A,  1).  Fruiting  spurs  (A,  2)  seldom  re- 
peat. Less  vigorous  (more  slender  and  generally 
shorter)  growths  are  mostly  alternate  in  fruiting. 
Even  the  non-fruiting  spurs  (B,  3)  do  not  form  a 
blossom  bud. 


Regular  Bearing  Is  Re- 
lated TO  Wood 
Growth 

Regularly  bearing  trees 
show  a close  relation, 
again,  between  their 
growth  conditions  and 
fruiting.  They  make 
more  growth  than  trees 
with  an  off-year  habit. 
This  was  found  to  be  true 
of  Wealthy  in  Wisconsin, 
Winesap  in  Indiana,  and 
York  in  Virginia,  Mary- 
land, and  West  Virginia. 
The  usual  terminal 
growth  made  by  the  av- 
erage  old,  bearing 
Wealthy  is  about  4 to  5 
inches.  Regularly  bear- 
ing trees  usually  have  a 
terminal  growth  of  12  to 
16  inches  or  more.  Spur 
growth  conditions  accom- 
panying  the  greater 
growth  of  the  latter  trees 
gives  regular  blossoming 
of  the  tree  as  a whole. 
This  occurs  principally  in 


5 ways: 


1.  Formation  of  blossom  buds  on  some  secondary  growths. 

This  gives  successive  blossoming  of  some  spurs  (fig.  9). 

2.  Formation  of  some  terminal  and  lateral  blossom  buds. 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


23 


3.  Greater  growth  of  the  spurs  with 
less  than  the  usual  excessive 
numbers  of  spurs  blossoming 
and  thus  some  spurs  alternat- 
ing in  bearing  (fig.  11). 

4.  ‘'Normal”  fruit  spur  formation 

on  second  year  wood  (fig.  10). 

5.  Sufficient  growth  of  non-blossom- 

ing spurs  on  fruiting  trees  so 
that  they  form  blossom  buds. 
Thus,  bearing  on  alternating 
spurs  gives  regular  bearing  of 
the  tree  as  a whole.  The  last 
two  conditions  are  most  im- 
portant. 

Successive  blossoming  of  any  given 
spur  is  not  an  important  factor  in 
regular  bearing.  This  is  because 
most  of  the  blossom  buds  on  second- 
ary growths  are  on  non-fruiting 
spurs.  While  it  is  not  unusual  on 
vigorously  growing  trees  for  a fruit 
spur  which  dropped  its  young  fruits 
to  form  a blossom  bud,  it  is  seldo?n 
that  a spur  which  is  maturing  fruit 
produces  one.  Auchter^  also  reports 
this  condition  in  West  Virginia. 

The  following  data  from  a young 
annually  bearing  Wealthy  or(»hard 
indicate  the  relation  of  successive 
blossoming  to  total  blossoming.  Tf 
the  tree  has  few  blossoms,  most  of 
these  may  be  on  the  secondary 
growths.  If  the  tree  is  blossoming 
heavily  an  increasingly  smaller  per- 
centage of  the  blossoms  are  upon 
secondary  growths. 

^ AuchUr,  K C.,  Ann.  Rpt.  Soc.  Hor(.  .Sci. 
1919. 


PIG.  10.  A VIGOROUS  GROWTH 
SEEMS  NECESSARY  TO 
REGULAR  BEARING 


Fruit  spurs  form  regularly  on 
second  year  wood  only  when  a 
strong  terminal  growth  is 
made.  Otherwise  they  form 
there  only  when  the  tree  Is  pro- 
ducing blossom  buds. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


Table  VI. — Relation  of  Successive  Blossoming  to  Total 
Blossoming 


Percentage  of  blossom  buds  on 

secondary  growth 

90-100 

■ 76-90 

61-75 

46-60 

31-46 

16-30 

0-15 

Percentage  of  total  spurs  blos- 

soming on  trees 

5.0 

14.3 

20.0 

20.0 

32.4 

29.6 

43.0 

Terminal  and  lateral  blossom  bud  formation  are  also  of  no 
great  importance  in  securing  regular  bearing  of  Wealthy.  Quire 
a number  of  fruits  may  be  borne  upon  terminal  spurs  but  it  is 
seldom  that  any  large  percentage  of  lateral  buds  set  fruits.  The 
lilossoms  generally  drop  from  lateral  blossom  buds. 

The  third  condition  as 
a factor  in  regular  bear- 
ing— reduced  blossom  bud 
formation — is  important. 
The  effect  of  pruning  by 
small  cuts  is  to  stimulate 
the  spur  growth  near  the 
cut  (fig.  11).  In  this  way 
blossom  bud  formation  is 
modified.  Small  experi- 
mental tests  have  given 
regular  bearing  on  what 
were  formerly  persistent 
off-year  trees.  The  full 
value  of  this  method  as  a 
means  of  inducing  regu- 
larity of  bearing  is  not 
known.  At  present  it  is 
merely  important  to  note 
that  regular  bearing  was 
induced  by  pruning  un- 
der the  conditions  of  a 
small  test  on  four  trees. 
This  resulted  through 
greater  growth  of  some 
spurs  and  a consequently 
smaller  percentage  cf 


FIG.  11.  PRUNING  CUTS  NEAR  THE  SPURS 
INCREASES  THEIR  GROWTH 

Removal  of  large  limbs  may  have  little  influence, 
but  small  cuts  near  the  spurs  have  a marked  ef- 
fect on  growth. 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


lilossom  buds  as  contrasted  with  the  large  numbers  usually 
formed  by  Wealthy. 

The  question  then  arises  as  to  how  many  spurs  are  needed  to 
produce  a crop  of  apples.  From  the  data  in  Table  VII  Ave  find 
about  35  per  cent  of  the  spurs  may  produce  an  average  yield. 
If  the  percentage  of  spurs  blossoming  is  much  higher  than  this 
the  drop  of  fruit  reduces  the  bearing  spurs  to  about  this  num- 
ber. That  is,  there  is  in  general  an  inverse  ratio  between  the 
number  of  spurs  blossoming  and  the  percentage  sett’ng  fruits. 


Table  VII — -Relation  of  Percentage  op  Spurs  Blossoming  to  Yield 


Per  cent 
vegetative 
spnr 

Percent 
blossom 
spurs  setting 
fruit 

No.  of  spurs 
fruiting 
per  100 

Fruits 

to 

spur 

Fruits 
to  100 
spurs 

Average  , 
weight  of 
fruit 
lbs. 

1 

AAYight  of 
fruit  per 
100  spurs 
on  tree 

0-20 

36.4 

36.11 

1.06 

38.2 

.138 

5.27 

21-40 

49.0 

33.4 

1.21 

40.4 

.177 

7.15 

41-60 

81.1 

38.8 

1.5 

58.2 

.165 

9.6 

61-80 

82.6 

V3.5 

1.59 

37.3 

.191 

7.12 

81-100 

96  0 

■ • 9.6 

2.03 

19.5 

.25 

4.87 

If  more  than  50  to  60  per  cent  of  the  spurs  blossom,  the  fruits 
are  generally  undersized  unless  the  drop  is  very  heavy.  Data 
from  an  annually  bearing  orchard  show  a full  crop  Avas  borne  by 
trees  averaging  40  to  60  per  cent  of  the  spurs  blossoming  (Table 
VIII).  Apjiarently,  then,  tlie  percentage  of  spurs  blossoming 
can  be  reduced  to  the  point  Avhere  it  is  possible  to  haA^e  regular 
bearing,  Avithout  ser'ously  affecting  the  crop  of  fruit. 


Table  VIII. — Relation  Between  Percentage  of  Spurs  Blossoming 

AND  Crop 


Percentage  of  crop 

0-20 

21-40 

41-60 

61-80 

81-100 

10P120 

121- 

Percentage  of  spurs  blossoming 

4.3 

6.8 

13.5 

17.8 

41.1 

70.9 

73.7 

Fruiting  on  Second-ye.ar  Wood  Important  to  Regular 

Be.aring 

It  is  of  greatest  importance  that  fruit  spui’s  foian  on  second- 
year  Avood  if  regular  lieailng  is  to  lie  obtained.  (See  fig.  10).  Few 
fruit  spurs  form  on  tlie  second-year  Avood  Avhen  the  tei'ininals 
average  no  more  than  4 to  5 inclics  in  length.  Tliese  form  lilos- 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


som  buds  only  in  the  off-year  when  the  other  spurs  are  forming 
them.  These  spurs  are  usually  small  and  do  not  form  blossom 
buds  during  the  fruiting  year.  On  the  other  hand,  the  more 
numerous  and  larger  spurs  along  a 10-to  15-inch  terminal  growth 
generally  form  some  blossom  buds  irrespective  of  whether  the  tree 
is  fruiting  or  not.  This  fact  largely  accounts  for  the  almost 
mysterious  effect  which  increasing  the  growth  of  older  trees  has 
upon  blossom-bud  formation  and  regularity  of  bearing. 

Another  condition  which  is  mainly  associated  with  regularity 
of  bearing  is  the  fifth  one  previously  listed : production  of  blos- 
s.om  buds  on  spurs  which  are  not  blossoming  in  the  fruiting  year. 
The  usual  biennially  bearing  Wealthy  tree  has  almost  all  or  none 
of  its  spurs  blossoming.  This  factor  is  not  of  so  much  impor- 
tance, then,  with  this  variety.  With  some  other  varieties,  and  in 
different  localities  it  is  of  extreme  importance.  Observation  of 
biennially  bearing  Winesap  and  York  trees  growing  in  Indiana^ 
and  Illinois  showed  that  these  trees  often  had  no  more  than  50 
per  cent  of  their  spurs  blossoming  in  the  fruiting  year.  Such 
trees  would  theoretically  be  expected  to  form  some  blossom  buds. 
The  question  was,  then,  why  did  these  non-blossoming  spurs  fail 
to  form  blossom  buds?  Measurements  of  spur  growth  revealed 
that  the  answer  lay,  again,  in  the  amount  of  growth  made  by 


Table  IX. — Growth  op  Non-blossoming  Spurs  on  Annual  and 
Biennial  Winesap  Trees 


Growth  on  non-blossoming 

Percent asre  of 

spurs  in  fruiting  year 

Class 

spurs  blos- 

soming 

P'-rcentasre 

Percentage 

‘ 

under  3 mm. 

over  5 mm. 

Biennial 

49.65 

82.89 

3.95 

Annual 

49  25 

23.53 

49.02 

these  spurs — they  were  practically  all  of  the  class  of  under-vege- 
tative spurs  which  do  not  form  blossom  buds.  On  regularly  bear- 
ing trees  the  non-blossoming  spurs  were  largely  *of  the  class  that 
form  blossom  buds.  The  percentages  found  on  off-year  Winesap 
as  contrasted  with  regular  bearing  Winesap  are  given  in  Table 
IX. 

^ Grateful  appreciation  is  expressed  for  the  assistance  given  by  Professor 
Joseph  Oskamp  of  the  Horticultural  Department  of  Purdue  University,  in  se- 
curing these  observations. 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


27 


Except  for  the  persistently  unfruitful  tree  it  is  believed  that 
the  observations  reported  show  a close  relationship  between  the 
growth,  especially  the  spur  growth,  which  the  tree  makes  and  its 
fruiting  habit.  Consistent  off-year  bearing  was  found  to  be  ac- 
counted for  on  that  basis.  It  was  also  noted  that  regularly 
bearing  trees  have  correspondingly  different  growth  conditions. 
The  question  arises  from  this  as  to  the  practicability  of  attempt- 
ing to  overcome  biennial  bearing  and  also  the  question  of  the 
value  and  use  of  the  different  cultural  practices  in  accomplishing 
the  result.  One  of  the  first  steps  as  a basis  for  proper  treatment 
is  to  determine  what  condition  the  trees  are  in. 

Base  the  Culture  Upon  the  Spur  Growth  Made 

It  has  been  pointed  out  (Table  III)  that  so  far  as  blossom 
bud  formation  is  concerned,  there  are  four  classes  of  spurs  on 
older  bearing  trees,  (1)  under-vigorous  spurs  (short  spurs 
which  usually  have  terminal  leaf  buds),  (2)  vigorous  non-fruit- 
ing spurs  (medium  length  spurs  which  generally  form  blossom 
buds  but  seldom  fruit),  (3)  vigorous  fruiting  spurs  (medium 
length  spurs  which  blossom  and  usually  set  fruit),  and  (4) 
over-vigorous  spurs  (long  spurs,  some  or  many  of  which  have 
terminal  leaf  buds).  By  observing  the  kind  and  amount  of 
spur  growth  which  the  tree  makes,  the  grower  has  an  indication 
of  what  the  tree  needs  in  a cultural  way. 

If  practically  all  of  the  spurs  (85  to  95  per  cent)  blossom, 
-with  Wealthy  an  off-year  is  quite  certain  to  follow.  The  aim 
should  be  to  reduce  the  excessive  blossoming  of  the  trees.  In- 
creased growth  to  secure  considerable  numbers  of  over-vigorous 
spurs  should  help  in  this  case. 

If  the  tree  has  but  35  to  50  or  65  per  cent  of  the  spurs  blos- 
soming it  may  even  have  an  off-year  following  blossoming.  It 
is  important,  when  judging  the  trees,  to  know  the  amount  of 
spurs  blossoming  but  equally  important  facts  to  determine  are : 
Are  any  blossom  spurs  forming  on  second-year  terminal 
growths?  How 'much  growth  are  the  non-blossoming  spurs 
making?  Are  they  making  so  little  growth  that  no  blossom 
buds  are  formed?  Are  they  making  enough  growth  to  be  in 
the  class  of  spurs  that  form  blossom  buds?  (Table  IX).  The 
answers  to  these  questions  should  be  the  basis  upon  which  to 
build  the  cultural  plan. 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


It  becomes  necessary,  then,  to  decide  whether  cultivation,  ap 
plication  of  fertilize!*,  pruning,  or  combinations  of  these  prac- 
tices are  to  be  used.  Some  suggestions  as  to  the  specific  use  of 
the  various  practices  will  be  made. 

Cultivation  Is  Not  Always  Needed 

It  is  often  necessary  to  check  the  growth  of  younger  non-bear- 
ing trees  in  order  to  bring  them  into  bearing.  While  this  can 
be  done  by  root  pruning,  girdling,  or  ringing  the  trees,  it  is  gen- 
erally found  possible  to  check  excessive  growth  by  sod  culture. 
This  offers  little  chance  for  permanent  injury  to  the  trees,  which 
may  occur  from  girdling  or  root  pruning.  More  often,  how- 
ever, the  trees  are  under-vigorous  and  a greater  growth  than 
average  is  desired. 

This  question  of  whether  it  is  best  to  use  sod  or  clean  culture 
for  older  bearing  trees  has  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion 
and  investigation.  Such  investigations  have  tended  to  clear  the 
situation  by  determining  the  function  of  cultivation.  Gourley^ 
reports  that  under  the  New  Hampshire  conditions  cultivation  in- 
creased the  growth  of  the  trees  through  its  effect  upon  the  forma- 
tion of  nitrates  and  not  through  moisture  conservation.  He  re- 
ports little  difference  in  the  moisture  content  of  the  soil  when  in 
sod  and  where  cultivated,  but  a marked  difference  in  the  nitrate 
content.  It  is  possible  that  this  is  the  condition  in  many  orch- 
ards where  the  soil  is  of  good  depth  and  moisture  is  not  the  lim- 
iting factor.  On  the  other  hand,  if  moisture  is  the  limiting 
Tactor,  cultivation  may  be  necessary.  Hedricks^  says  that  New 
York  orchards  should  be  cultivated. 

In  many  situations  the  danger  of  washing  is  so  great  that  cul- 
tivation is  not  practicable.  Here  sod  culture  is  necessary.  In 
Wisconsin  this  generally  results  in  somewhat  smaller  fruits  of  a 
much  more  intense  color.  The  problem,  then,  is  usually  one  of 
using  a sod  culture-fertilizer  method  combined  with  pruning,  in 
order  to  obtain  good-sized,  well-colored  fruits. 

A Nitrogenous  Fertilizer  Is  Often  Needed 

The  mistake  should  not  be  made  of  considering  that  nitrogen 
is  the  only  element  needed,  though  very  few  orchard  fertilizer 


^Gourly,  J.  H.  N.  H.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  190. 

‘HedricK,  U.  P.,  N.  Y.  (Geneva)  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  383. 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


29 


experiments  have  shown  marked  benefits  from  the  nse  of  other 
elements,  at  least  when  measuring  the  results  by  yield.  If  the 
soil  is  deficient  of  other  elements,  as  is  frequently  true  as  regards 
phosphorus  and  potash,  this  deficiency  should  be  made  up. 
However,  a readily  available  nitrogenous  fertilizer  is  usually 
needed  because  apple  spur  growth  is  made  in  the  spring  when 
there  is  little  available  nitrogen  present  even  in  some  of  the  rich- 
er soils.  Very  often  the  spur  growth  would  be  helped  by  an  ap- 
plication of  a readily  available  nitrogenous  fertilizer  to  soils 
which  are  rather  rich  in  humus  and  which  show  high  nitrates 
late  in  the  growing  season. 

Apply  the  Nitrogenous  Fertilizer  Early 

To  make  up  the  deficiency  in  nitrates,  an  early  application 
is  best.  In  general,  this  should  be  two  to  three  weeks  before  the 
trees  blossom.  This  should  also  be  of  a readily  available  form 
of  fertilizer.  No  suggestion  is  ventured  at  this  time  as  to 
whether  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulfate  of  ammonia  is  the  better  form 
to  use.  Neither  is  it  certain  whether  all  of  the  fertilizer  used 
should  be  applied  at  once  or  in  two  or  more  applications.  Marked 
results  have  been  observed  from  the  use  of  both  ammonia  and 
nitrate.  In  general,  a medium  heavy  application  of  nitrate  on 
Wisconsin  Wealthy,  which  is  a small  tree,  would  be  about  as 
follows : 10-12  years,  2-3  pounds ; 12-15  years,  3-4  pounds ; 15-20 
years,  4-6  pounds;  20-30  years,  5-8  pounds.  This  should  be 
broadcasted  about  the  trees,  away  from,  rather  than  close  to,  the 
trunks  of  the  trees,  as  the  feeding  roots  are  largely  in  the  inter- 
spaces. Keep  live  stock  away  while  any  crystals  are  present  as 
it  is  somewhat  poisonous.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  readily  soluble  and 
apparently  it  need  not  be  worked  into  sodded  soil,  even,  if  rains 
are  frequent  when  it  is  applied. 

Nitrogenous  Fertiuzer  Increases  the  Wood  Growth 

In  sod  orchards  an  early  application  of  a quickly  available 
nitrogenous  fertilizer  increases  the  spur  growth,  results  in  a 
larger  leaf  surface  and  gives  a darker  green  foliage,  a heavier  set 
of  fruit  and  generally  larger  fruits,  but  it  slightly  delays  matur- 
ity and  may  reduce  Ihe  color  to  some  extent.  In  1918  the  differ- 
ence in  spur  growth  of  non-beai-irig  Wealthy  was  as  follows: 
check  trees  4.89  mm.;  nitrate  of  soda  11.98.  In  1919  when  there 


80 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


was  a larger  growth  on  checks  than  usual,  less  difference  in 
growth  was  also  noted.  The  figures  for  different  trees  than  those 
used  in  1918  are : check  7.41 ; nitrate  9.25.  Growers  consider  the 
use  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers  a profitable  practice  because  of  the 
better  foliage  and  fruit  produced,  aside  from  its  having  any  pos- 
sible effect  toward  inducing  regular  bearing. 

In  cultivated  orchards  the  use  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulfate  of 
ammonia  is  less  apparent,  being  evident  usually  in  an  increased 
spur  growth.  Due  to  mid-season  nitrification,  if  not  to-  changed 
moisture  conditions,  the  trees  under  cultivation  have  a large 
terminal  growth,  dark-colored  foliage  and  large  fruits  of  usually 
less  color  than  under  sod  culture.  It  is  not  certain  whether  the 
reduced  color  of  the  fruit  is  due  more  to  the  early  nitrate  or  to 
increased  nitrification  following  cultivation.  This  situation  pre- 
sents the  problem  of  attempting  to  obtain  the  desired  growth 
by  applying  a quickly  available  nitrogenous  fertilizer  early  in 
the  spring  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  get  good  color  by  having 
the  orchard  in  some  type  of  sod  culture. 

Nitrogenous  Fertilizers  Should  Be  Used  Cautiously 

Marked  results  are  most  certainly  obtained  when  a fertilizer 
as  nitrate  of  soda  is  applied  to  older,  feebly  vegetative  trees. 
These  trees  have  abundant  carbohydrates.  The  addition  of  ni- 
trogen generally  gives  a large  growth  with  accompanying  heavy 
fruitfulness  and  better  financial  returns.  This  often  leads  the 
grower  to  make  further  heavy  applications  of  this  fertilizer. 
The  result  may  be  a serious  depletion  of  stored  carbohydrates 
and  then  under-production  can  be  expected  to  follow.  The 
regular  use  of  readily  available  nitrogenous  fertilizers  is  neces- 
sary in  many  cases  but  it  should  be  attempted  with  caution. 

Nitrogenous  Fertilizer  Usually  Increases  the  Blossoming 
OF  Weak  Trees 

The  view  has  been  presented  that  the  use  of  an  early  season 
application  of  a quickly  available  nitrogenous  fertilizer  may  be 
one  means  toward  including  regular  bearing  of  off-year  varieties 
of  apples.  This  is  because  of  its  effect  upon  blossom  bud  forma- 
tion through  increasing  the  spur  and  wood  growtli  of  the  tree. 
The  use  of  such  a fertilizer  is,  however,  most  certainly  not  a 
guarantee  of  regular  bearing.  In  fact,  with  under-vigorous 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


31 


trees  it  will  often  produce  excessive  blossom  bud  formation, 
which  we  have  suggested  as  being  associated  with  the  off-year. 
But  even  while  giving  more  blossoms  it  has  increased  the  tend- 
ency to  regular  bearing  in  this  way : the  tree  was  changed  from 
an  under-vigorous  to  a vigorous  tree.  Thus  additional  treat- 
ment, such  as  pruning,  might  give  a much  more  vigorous  tree 
as  compared  to  the  usual  poorly  growing  one,  and  could  thus 
result  in  successive  bearing. 

Pruning  Has  a Marked  Effect  Upon  Spur  Growth 

Pruning  by  small  cuts  has  a more  direct  use  in  the  rejuvena- 
tion of  old  spurs  on  older  fruiting  trees  than  cultivation  or  the 
use  of  fertilizers.  These  latter  seem  to  affect  principally  the 
amount  of  terminal  growth.  -That  is,  their  influence  seems 
greater  toward  the  ends  of  the  larger  branches  and  main  chan- 
nels of  sap  flow  than  upon  the  older  ‘‘run  ouU’  spurs.  Pruning 
by  small  cuts  is  of  especial  value  in  increasing  spur  growth,  on 
such  varieties  as  Wealthy  (flg.  11).  In  fact,  this  type  of  prun- 
ing often  appears  to  be  the  most  valuable  single  factor  in  pro- 
ducing a spur  growth  which  tends  to  give  annual  bearing  -and, 
incidentally,  it  is  the  means  which  has  been  least  practiced  com- 
mercially. 


Larger  Cuts  Should  Be  Avoided 

The  removal  of  large  limbs  even  on  the  lower  part  of  the  tree 
should  be  avoided,  if  possible.  A main  reason  is  that  the  re- 
moval of  a large  branch  has  little  apparent  effect  upon  the  spur 
growth  on  remaining  large  branches.  On  the  other  hand  the 
removal  of  an  equal  amount  of  wood  by  small  cuts  on  several 
limbs  has  a marked  effect  upon  the  spurs  of  all.  Also,  the 
taking  out  of  a larger  limb  leaves  a “hole”  in  the  fruiting  sur- 
face of  the  top  and  also  dense  places  on  the  remaining  limbs. 
Properly  placed  small  cuts  result  in  a maximum  fruit-bearing 
area  evenly  distributed  about  the  tree  top. 

Too  much  “pruning  up”  is  done  (flg.  12).  Very  often  the 
lower  wood  is  weak  and  dying.  This  is  due  mainly  to  shade. 
The  remedy,  then,  is  not  to  cut  off  all  the  low  wood  but  to  cut 
back  and  thin  out  the  top  to  permit  light  and  air  to  reach  the 
lower  wood  (fig.  13).  This  also  gives  a lower  tree  which  makes 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


spraying  and  harvesting  easier  and  helps  to  renew  the  lower 
wood. 

Cut  Back  to  Lateral  Branches 


Many  hesitate  to  cut  back  the  tops  for  fear  of  starting  a sucker 
growth.  It  is  seldom  that  many  suckers  result  if  the  cuts  are 
made  at  the  proper  place.  A heavy  cut  made  close  to  small 


It  removes  instead  of  rejuvenates  the  fruiting  wood.  By  increasing  the  height  of  the 
bearing  area  it  increases  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  orchard.  Compare  with 
figure  13. 


spurs  will  result  in  whip  gro^vths  but  if  it  is  made  near  a rela- 
tively large  lateral  branch  little  suckering  takes  place.  The  lat- 
eral branches  appear  to  use  the  extra  sap  flow  without  suckers 
being  produced.  This  has,  however,  more  to  do  with  the  type 
of  tree  than  with  spur  growth,  except  as  it  affects  shading  of 
the  lower  wood. 

Thin  Out  the  Top  With  Small  Cuts 

Wealthy  tops  are  not  generally  very  dense  but  the  branches 
tend  to  crowd  and  become  tangled.  Also  the  older  spurs  tend 
to  become  weak,  often  blossoming  but  not  generally  setting  fruit. 


Off-Year  Apple  Bearing 


The  treatment,  then,  is  (1)  to  cut  out  the  crowding  branches 
and  (2)  to  cut  back  the  branches  to  rejuvenate  the  spurs.  Both 
of  these  operations  should  be  b}^  small  cuts  (fig.  11).  If  two 
rather  large  branches  tend  to*  cross,  remove  the  small  branches 
which  are  actually  crossing  and  not  one  of  the  larger  branches. 
This  method  distributes  the  effects  of  the  pruning  about  the 
top  and  gives  an  even  density  of  the  top  and  a better  spur 
growth. 


FIG.  13.  HEADING  BACK  BY  THINNING  OUT  SEEMS  A BETTER  PRACTICE 

It  lowers  the  top  and  admits  light  to  the  lower  wood.  It  decreases  the  competition 
between  the  upper  and  lower  branches,  resulting  in  a greater  growth  of  the  latter. 
Suckering  can  largely  be  avoided  if  the  cuts  are  made  close  to  relatively  large  laterals. 


Light  Greatly  Affects  Spur  Functioning 

Much  has  been  said  of  carbohydrates  but  one  of  the  main 
conditions  essential  to  carbohydrate  formation — light — has 
liardly  been  mentioned.  Apple  wood  does  not  thrive  in  heavy 
shade.  However,  only  moderate  openness  can  be  maintained. 
The  density  of  the  top  varies  greatly  witli  the  variety,  but  a too 
open  top  soon  becomes  over  dense  from  new  growths,  almost 
regardless  of  variety.  A chief  means  of  liettering  the  light  in 
the  top  is  to  cut  back  the  taller  shading  branches  (fig.  13). 

It  is  often  said  that  spreading  of  the  top  under  the  weight 
of  fruit  gives  sufficient  light  to  the  lower  wood.  This  may  he 
true  as  regards  coloring  of  the  fruit,  but  it  is  not  triu'  wi1h 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  317 


regard  to  the  needs  of  spurs.  The  spreading  does  not  occur  until 
after  it  is  too  late  to  affect  blossom  bud  formation  in  any  given 
year  by  the  better  light  provided.  Sufficient  pruning  should  be 
done  to  admit  light  to  the  lower  wood  if  the  spurs  are  to  be 
kept  fruitful.  The  local  effects  of  pruning  are  quite  as  good  in 
relation  to  the  production  of  growth  or  blossom  bud  develop- 
ment as  light  itself. 

Prune  in  the  Off-year  to  Help  the  Spur  Growth 

If  pruning  is  being  done  with  the  special  aim  of  securing 
regular  bearing  it  appears  best  to  begin  in  the  off-year.  When 
the  spurs  are  making  a vegetative  growth  (not  blossoming)  it  is 
not  difficult  to  cause  some  of  them  to  become  over-vegetative 
and  thus  reduce  blossom  bud  formation.  It  seems  more  diffi- 
cult to  increase  the  vigor  of  blossoming  spurs  until  some  second- 
ary growths  are  large  enough  to  give  successive  blossoming. 
Hence  it  appears  that  the  chances  of  early  success  with  Wealthy 
are  better  if  the  pruning  work  or  other  cultural  practice  is  begun 
in  the  off-year.  If  the  fruiting  tree  has  many  non-blossoming 
spurs  that  generally  make  little  growth  and  do  not  form  blos- 
som buds,  treating  in  the  fruiting  year  to  increase  the  growth 
of  these  spurs  may  give  successive  blossoming.  (See  Table  IX.) 

Weather  Conditions  Affect  Regular  Bearing 

It  is  believed,  in  view  of  the  observations  reported,  that  regu- 
lar bearing  is  a practical  possibility  for  some  varieties  which 
are  not  regularly  annual  bearers.  The  single  factor  of  variable 
weather  during  the  growing  period  is  sufficient  occasionally  to 
limit  growth  so  as  to  result  in  under-  to  medium-vigorous  spurs. 
This  may  give  excess  blossoms  and  an  off-year.  Regular  bear- 
thg  to  a greater  degree  than  usually  occurs  seems  to  be  depend- 
ent, however,  upon  the  treatment  given  the  trees.  This  seems 
to  apply  to  even  the  sod  orchard,  unless  the  soil  is  such  that 
moisture  is  the  limiting  factor. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  of  the  University 
H.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 


W.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
3.  A.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr,  Chemistry 


A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 
Mary  Arbogast,  Home  Economics 

, F.  A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 
■ T.  L.  Bewick,  Agr.  Extension 

. G.  Bohstedt,  Animal  Husbandry 
I r.  Campion,  Assistant  State  Deader  of  County 
Agents 

L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 
E.  J.  Cooper,  Administration 
May  Cowles,  Home  Economics 

E.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 

J.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 

f Bernice  Dodge,  Home  Economics 
: .1.  S.  Donald,  Agr.  Economics 

F.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 

: E.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy  Husbandry 
E.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
W.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

J.  G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  J.  Geib,  Soils 

E.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  F.  Graber,  Agnonomy 

F.  B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterinary  Science 
.1.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry 
P.  N.  Harmer,  Soils 

E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chemistry 

E.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Bacteriology 

K.  L.  Hatch,  Agr.  Education 

C.  S.  Hean,  Agr.  Dibrary 

B.  H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Economics 
Ellen  Hillstrom,  Home  Economics 

A.  W.  Hopkins,  Editor;  in  charge  of  Agr.  Jour- 
nalism 

R.  S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Education 

A.  G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
J.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

E.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Engineering 

L.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pathology 
Nellie  Kedzie  Jones,  Home  Economics 

G.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
E.  J.  Kraus,  Plant  Pathology 

Jean  Krueger,  Home  Economics 

B.  D.  IvEiTH,  Agronomy 

E.  W.  Dindstrom,  Genetics 

E.  I..  Luther,  Field  Supervisor  of  Extension 

Courses  and  Schools 
T.  Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 
Hazel  Manning,  Home  Economics 
Abby  Tj.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home  Economics 
J.  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 
J.  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticulture 

M.  Moore,  Assistant  State  T.eader  of  County 

Agents 

R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 


K.  D.  Hatch,  Asst.  Div.  Extension  Service 
F.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Div.  Experiment  Station 


F.  L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

G.  F.  Potter,  Horticulture 
M.  C.  Riley,  Agr.  Economics 
Dorothy  Roberts,  Home  Economics 
R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 

J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 

H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 

A.  D.  Stone,  Agronomy 
W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
T.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
D M.  Tiffany,  Agr.  Education 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
u Truog,  Soils 

W.  Ullsperger,  Soils  (Sturgeon  Bay) 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
' . R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic  Entomol- 
ogy 

J.  F.  Wojta.  State  Deader  of  County  Agents 
A H.  Wright,  Agronomy 
W H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Bacteriology,  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 

TL  w.  Albertz,  Agronomy 

Freda  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

R M.  (Bethke,  Genetics 

J.  W.  Brann,  Horticulture,  Plant  Pathology 
O.  R.  Brunkow,  Agr.  Chemistry 
A . J.  Cramer,  Animal  Husbandry 
Marguerite  Davis,  Home  Economics 
G.  R.  B.  Elliott,  Agr.  Engineering 
J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 
C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 
W.  E.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

.1.  I.  Hambleton,  Economic  Entomology 

R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 

O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Grace  Dangdon,  Agr.  Journalism 

S.  Lepkovsky,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Marie  I^ottes,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
,J.  D.  Lush,  Genetics 

E.  J.  Malloy,  Soils 

S.  W.  Mendum,  Agr.  Economics 

R.  O.  Nafziger,  Agr.  Journalism 
E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

E.  X.  Ritger,  Executive  Secretary  ^ 

.1.  R.  ScHLiciiER,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Mariana  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 

P.  W.  Senn,  Genetics 

S.  W.  Shear,  Agr.  Economics 

W.  ,S.  Smith,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
V.  A.  Tiedjbns,  Agronomy 

C.  E.  Walsh,  Agr.  Engineering 


October,  1 920 


Bulletin  318 


1 MW0%M€NTS  6m  the  PIONEER  FARR 
.ARE  tOMPARATlVEIY  INEXPENSIVE^'^ 


Credit  Needs 
of  Settlers 


in 


Upper  UJisconsin 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OP  WISCONSIN 
MADISON 


r.AKlNG  AWeLL-IMF'ROveOFARM  REQUIRE? 
‘MUCH  CAPITAU  AND  LABOR 


DIGEST 


The  settler’s  labor  and  capital  during-  the  pioneering-  stage  of  farm 
makting  is  devoted  to  the  erection  of  more  or  less  temporary  build- 
ings, to  land  clearing,  and  to  obtaining  foundation  stock  for  his  (herds. 

Pages  3-9. 

The  settler  needs  $1,000  to  $1,500  in  capital,  or  in  capital  and  credit, 
to  make  normal  progress  through  the  pioneering  stage.  He  must  ex- 
pect to  carry  most  of  this  money  credit  into  the  new  settlement  with 
him,  or  be  helped  to  it  by  the  colonization  company.  Pages  9—15. 

The  development  stage  requires  an  available  capital  of  at  least 
$2,500.  In  this  period  comes  the  erection  of  permanent  buildings,  the 
breeding  of  a good  dairy  herd,  and  the  accumulation  of  farm  ma- 
chinery. The  farmer  and  the  farm  ought  to  be  sufficient  basis  for 
the  credit  needed.  Pages  15-22. 

Two  types  of  farmers  want  credit  in  upper  Wisconsin:  the  man  with 
sufficient  security  to  get  a bank  loan,  and  the  man  unable  to  get  a 
bank  loan.  Each  type  of  settler  wants  at  least  two  types  of  credit, 
long-time  credit  and  short-time  credit.  Pages  22-25. 

The  settler  with  some  money  is  serv'ed  by  the  present  agencies  of 
credit,  real  estate  companies,  chattel  mortgage  credit,  bank  credits  of 
various  kinds,  and  different  short-time  credits.  Pages  25-29. 

No  credit  machinery  is  now  provided  that  can  serve  the  less  well- 
to-d’o  settler.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  most  of  the  failures  in  this 
class  of  settlers  are  due  to  financial  difficulties.  Pages  29-34. 

The  great  object  should  be  not  to  subsidize  the  farmer  but  to  make 
his  security  as  mobile  as  that  of  the  merchant  or  manufacturer.  A 
few  states  which  have  the  problem  of  credit  needs  of  settlers  are 
adopting  heroic  measures  to  meet  the  needs.  Page  35. 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper 
Wisconsin 


RICHARD  T.  ELY,  B.  H.  HIBBARD,  ALONZO  B.  COX 

Farm  development  in  a cut-over  region  consists  of  two  fairly 
distinct  processes.  The  first  is  the  pioneering  stage,  which  is 
devoted  primarily  to  getting  located  on  the  land  and  to  prepar- 
ing the  land  for  effective  agricultural  use.  It  is  primarily  a 
spending  process,  and  the  returns  on  labor  and  capital  appear 
largely  in  increased  land  values.  The  second  stage  is  devoted 
to  farm  improvement,  especially  in  the  way  of  making  perma- 
aent  buildings,  accnmulating  working  capital,  and  development 
of  markets.  Credit  needs  are  more  pressing  in  the  first  period 
than  in  the  second,  and  are  harder  to  provide.  In  the  second 
period  such  needs  are  larger,  but  are  on  a much  better  basis. 

CREDIT  NEEDS  IN  THE  PIONEERING  STAGE 
Cost  of  Getting  on  the  Land 

The  credit  required  by  pioneering  settlers  in  upper  Wiscon- 
sin can  best  be  shown  by  an  analysis  of  costs  and  rates  of  prog- 
ress. The  settler  must  realize  that  every  item  of  expense  in- 
curred for  the  sake  of  the  farm,  from  the  stamp  on  the  letter 
that  answers  the  first  advertisement  of  the  land  company  until 
he  has  a deed  and  is  established  on  his  farm,  is  rightly  to  be 
considered  a part  of  the  cost  of  the  farm.  The  items  of  inci- 
dental expense  will  vai*y  widely,  depending  on  such  things  as 
the  personality  of  the  settler,  the  size  of  his  family,  and  the  dis- 
tance from  which  he  comes. 

Preliminary  expenses.  The  expense  of  getting  to  the  land; 
of  bringing  the  family,  household  effects,  and  equipment;  of  get- 
ting settled;  and  of  changing  from  the  equipment  of  a farm  in 
the  settled  country  to  what  is  needed  in  the  new  country  are,  all 
in  all,  matters  of  no  little  moment.  These  expenses  are  likely  to 
amount  to  anywhere  fi’om  fifty  to  several  hundred  dollars. 

The  land  agent  lias  usually  been  notified  when  the  prospec 
tive  settler  is  expected  to  arrive  and,  be  it  said  to  his  credit,  he 
usually  has  made  provision  for  temporary  quarters.  When  this 
is  not  done,  the  settler  is  frequently  put  to  considerable  expense 


4:  Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 

and  no  little  hardship  in  the  provision  of  quarters  until  the 
house  is  built.  If  the  settler’s  land  is  eight  or  ten  miles  fron) 
town,  and  he  has  to  get  a house  in  town  for  his  family,  he  has 


FIG.  1.— SHELTER  FROM  THE  START 

While  not  yet  a home,  shelter  such  as  this  provided  from  the  beginning  by  several  of 
the  colonization  companies,  enables  the  settler  to  put  his  time  wholly  on  the  land. 

either  to  take  long  trips  daily  or  else  prepare  temporary  bach- 
ing” quarters  on  his  farm,  which  is  expensive,  for  it  is  usually 
quite  cold  in  the  spring  of  the  year.  In  any  case,  there  will  be 
considerable  expense  for  which  no  exact  amount  can  be  set.  It 
certainly  is  to  the  interest  of  both  parties  to  cooperate  in  mak- 
ing this  expense  as  low  as  possible. 

Farm  Equipment  Costs 

Farm  building’s.  Through  the  assistance  of  a local  carpenter 
the  lumber  and  other  material  for  the  house  may  be  purchased 
and  rather  quickly  erected.  For  a shack  14  by  20  feet  the  cost 
is  about  $200  to  $300  for  the  lumber  and  other  materials  needed. 
The  labor  costs  for  the  house  wdll  ordinarily  be  about  $30.  The 
shed,  14  by  20  feet,  made  for  one  co^v  and  a horse,  costs  not  far 
from  $150.  The  lumber,  work,  and  hardware  for  a chicken 
house  will  cost  about  $10.  The  pigpen  may  be  constructed  out 
of  poles  and  logs  at  a total  cost  of  a few  daj^s’  labor.  These  fig- 
ures were  obtained  from  companies  building  on  the  wholesale 
plan.  Others  insist  that  the  buildings  should  be  permanent 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin 


5 


from  the  start,  even  though  the  cost  be  larger.  There  is  no  ab- 
solute rule,  but  the  expenditures  should  be  governed  to  a large 
extent  by  the  amount  of  money  possessed  by  the  settler. 

Household  furniture.  The  great  majority  of  families  moving 
into  upper  Wisconsin  will  be  able  to  get  along  with  the  furniture 
which  they  have  acquired  in  their  former  home. 

The  well.  A well  is  easily  made,  either  dug  or  driven,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances,  in  most  parts  of  the  unsettled  dis- 
tricts. By  using  material  near  at  hand  for  wall  or  curbing,  very 
little  money  need  be  paid  out  for  this  purpose.  Pulley,  rope, 
and  buckets  are  the  usual  means  of  drawing  water  and  an  ex- 
•penditnre  of  $20  or  such  a matter  will  suffice.  A driven  well 
costs  less. 

Fencing.  Except  for  hogs  and  sheep  a very  simple  fence  will 
answer  the  purpose  for  the  first  few  years.  Post  material  is 
ample,  and  a few  strands  of  wire  will  turn  cattle  and  horses. 
Even  stumps,  brush,  and  logs  furnish  all  the  fence  needed  in 
many  instances.  The  most  immediate  need  for  a fence  will  be 
around  the  garden ; the  next  will  be  around  the  cleared  field. 
The  settler  will  decide  what  he  needs  after  a little  experience, 
and  may  spend  anywhere  from  $25  to  $300  for  material. 

Tools  and  machinery.  Even  if  a man  has  been  a farmer  be- 
fore he  goes  to  upper  Wisconsin,  the  chances  are  he  will  have  to 
fjuy  several  new  tools.  In  the  first  place,  he  will  have  to  buy 
brush  ax  or  scythe,  grass  scythe,  cross-cut  saw,  light  wagon, 
spring-tooth  oi*  disc  harrow,  hoe,  rake,  and  frequently  mattock, 
pitf'hfoi'k,  breaking  plow,  log  chain,  and  double-bitted  ax.  At 
lenst  he  will  need  all  these  tools  with  many  little  accessories  such 
as  singletrees,  doubletrees,  clevises,  files  and  nails,  costing  a 
total  of  $100  to  $200.  The  man  who  has  been  farming  before 
will  have  on  hand  a large  part  of  this  sort  of  equipment.  Even 
though  he  Ooos  not  have  it,  it  will  be  possible;  to  buy  it  gradually 
since  many  things  will  not  be  needed  during  the  first  few 
months. 

Livestock.  The  question  of  the  amount  and  kind  of  livestock 
is  undoubtedly  the  most  impothant  point  in  determining  the  suc- 
cess or  failure  of  the  average  settle)’.  The  testimony  of  the 
county  agent,  the  bankers,  the  I’eal  estate  dealei’s,  and  the  suc- 
cessful fai’iiKU’s  agi-ees  that  the  small  daii’y  fai’in  with  more  or 
l(‘ss  vai’iety  of  cash-ci’ops  is  the  sui’cst  tyf>e  of  fai’iiiing  foi’  upper 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


Wisconsin.  Thus  it  is  essential  that  the  average  farmer  should 
have,  if  he  can  provide  even  the  roughage,  at  least  one  good  cow 
immediately  after  he  gets  on  his  land,  in  order  to  reduce  living 
expenses  and  to  make  a start  in  the  right  type  of  agriculture. 
He  should  multiply  his  herd  just  as  rapidly  as  he  is  able  to  pro- 
vide feed  for  the  cows.  It  is  generally  understood  that  a man 
can  clear  enough  land  in  time  to  plant  it  to  oats,  peas,  and  ruta- 
bagas^  which,  supplemented  with  some  marsh  hay,  will  provide 
roughage  for  a cow  or  two.  At  the  present  price  of  cows,  the 
settler  can  well  be  thankful  if  he  gets  a good  grade  cow  for  $150. 

A horse  is  of  doubtful  value  during  the  first  year  or  two  since 
the  cost  of  feed  is  so  high,  and  especially  since  it  is  not  likely 
that  circumstances  will  permit  the  use  of  a horse  any  consider- 
able part  of  the  time.  Some  of  the  colonization  companies  keep 
teams  to  rent  to  the  settlers  at  moderate  rates.  This  is  much 
more  economical  than  owning  a team  until  there  is  plenty  of 
work  for  it  to  do. 

A few  pigs,  chickens,  and  in  some  cases,  a few  sheep,  make 
up  the  list  of  livestock.  These  may  cost  from  $10  to  $15  or 
more. 


Working  Equipment  Varies  on  Different  Farms 

It  is  not  expected  that  the  account  of  the  individual  settler 
will  correspond  item  for  item  with  those  named,  but  they  repre- 
sent a safe  estimate,  for  they  are  based  on  a large  number  of  re- 
ports from  different  sources  and  sections.  It  is  certainly  safe 
to  say  that,  including  a quarter  payment  on  40  acres  of  land, 
the  majority  of  settlers,  if  they  pay  out  of  their  own  pockets  all 
these  expenses,  will  need  at  least  $1,100  in  money,  or  in  money, 
stock,  and  machinery,  to  get  started  on  the  land  with  reasonable 
working  equipment. 

It  is  true  that  a great  many  settlers  do  not  have  this  amount 
to  begin  with,  and  many  of  them  get  along,  some  of  them  sur- 
])rising1y  Avell.  This  is  done  by  hard  work,  by  establishing  per- 
sonal and  friendly  relationships  in  the  neighborhood,  and  even 
by  good  luck.  No  one  can  say  how  small  may  be  the  equipment 
of  a man  who  is  to  succeed.  It  may,  indeed,  be  almost  nothing, 
yet  it  must  not  be  understood  that  the  great  majority  can  suc- 
ceed without  some  material  equipment. 

In  answer  to  a questionnaire  a majority  of  the  land  com- 
panies said  that  from  75  to  100  per  cent  of  their  settlers  would 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin 


7 


fail  did  they  not  render  them  financial  and  other  assistance. 
Since  there  are  a great  many  who  buy  with  $1,000  or  less,  it 
would  probably  mean  that  practically  all  of  these  with  much 
less  means  would  fail  without  the  aid  of  the  land  company.  At 
present  there  are  a few  land  and  colonization  companies  in  up- 
per Wisconsin  that  will  furnish  this  equipment  either  by  hire 
or  purchase  and  simply  add  the  price  to  the  cost  of  the  land. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  advertisements  of  ready-made 
farms  that  are  entirely  misleading,  and  the  settler  is  advised  to 
be  careful  to  know  what  is  meant  by  ‘‘ready-made.^’ 

Land  Clearing  Costs  Must  Be  Considered 

One  of  the  main  occasions  for  credit  on  the  part  of  settlers 
in  upper  Wisconsin  is  the  cost  of  clearing.  On  prairie  land  an 
income  may  be  expected  within  a few  years,  perhaps  within  one 
year.  In  a cut-over  country,  although  some  income  may  be 
made  almost  at  once,  the  task  of  subduing  the  tract  is  a serious 
one. 

To  begin  with,  the  brush  must  be  cut  and  burned.  Next 
comes  the  removal  of  slashings,  windfalls,  and  merchantable 
second  growth.  The  equipment  for  this  work  will  be  mainly 
hand  tools  until  it  comes  to  moving  heavy  wood,  which  requires 
the  use  of  a team,  and  hauling  to  market,  for  which  a wagon  is 
needed. 

Stumps  are  expensive  to  move.  Time  and  the  weather  are 
effective  and  inexpensive,  but  not  all  can  be  left  to  this  process. 
Dynamite  can  be  had  in  any  quantity  and  the  settler  can  learn 
to  use  it.  Stump  pullers  and  pilers  are  better  owned  by  a corn- 
pan}"  or  a group  than  by  the  individual  settler.  In  most  in- 
stances credit  is  obtainable  after  the  clearing  is  done  rather  than 
for  the  purpose  of  doing  it,  although  a number  of  the  local 
l)anks  will  advance  credit  for  clearing  purposes  when  a settler 
has  established  a reputation  as  a worker.  The  colonization  com- 
pany is  the  natural  and  usual  source  of  the  credit  for  getting 
the  work  done. 

Cost  of  clearing.  It  would  not  be  possible  to  give  in  any 
brief  statement  an  adequate  idea  of  the  cost  of  clearing  cut-over 
land.  The  variation  is  so  wide  as  to  be  almost  unbelievable. 
Some  acres  may  be  cleared  at  a cost  of  $10 ; others  may  cost 
$150.  The  average  is  more  nearly  the  lower  figure  than  the 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


higher  one.  Averages  are,  however,  of  little  value  in  planning 
a farm.  What  is  wanted  is  specific  information  about  the  land 
in  question. 

Time  needed  in  clearing.  The  facts  in  the  case,  as  brought 
out  by  almost  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the  county  agents,  the 


fig.  2.— from  brush  to  Fl.OWFD  LAND 

better  real  estate  dealers,  old  and  new  settlers,  the  bankers  and 
others,  are  that  it  takes  about  three  years  for  the  majority  of  set- 
tlers to  get  enough  land  cleared  and  enough  equipment  combined 
with  it  to  make  a living  from  the  land.  The  majority  of  settlers, 
then,  must  have  when  the}^  settle  on  cut-over  land  some  outside 
income  for  about  three  years.  If  the  settlers  could  realize  this 
fact  they  would  probably  use  their  surplus  cash  to  better  ad  van- 


9 


[Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin 

Lage  and  would  frequently  not  make  the  attempt  until  they  were 
Detter  equipped  financially. 

Living  and  Operating  Expense  the  First  Year 

The  store  accounts  of  between  300  and  400  settlers  plus  the 
jpinions  of  a great  many  merchants  and  farmers  show  that  the 
najority  of  settlers  spend  about  $300  for  groceries  other  than 
nilk  and  butter,  and  about  $100  for  clothing  and  other  more 
)r  les^  incidental  expenses  the  first  year.  The  cost  for  extra 
;eed  for  the  cow,  chickens,  and  pigs,  will  certainly  be  not  less 
ban  $50  and  most  farmers  estimate  it  at  much  more  under  pres- 
ent conditions.  The  settler  ’s  tax  will  be  about  $8.  If  he  bought 
^ his  40  acres  of  land  on  a one-fourth  cash  pajmient  he  will  owe  at 
i the  end  of  the  year  an  interest  charge  of  $45,  the  rate  being  6 
I per  cent  and  the  land  valued  at  $25  an  acre.  For  a family  of 
I four,  the  simplest  living  will  cost  at  least  $500  in  addition  to 

( what  is  furnished  by  the  new  farm.  With  a few  dollars  to  pay 
I in  taxes  and  with  interest  on  the  unpaid  portion  of  the  pur- 
I chase  price  of  the  farm,  together  with  incidentals,  the  smallest 
P family  income  should  hardly  fall  below  $600.  Indeed,  this  is 
t less  than  a laborer’s  wages  for  a year.  The  farm  equipped  with 
a fair  number  of  cows,  pigs,  and  chickens,  however,  together 
with  a garden,  will  furnish  a very  large  part  of  this  amount. 

. Whether  there  will  be  this  equipment  during  the  first  year  is  a 
question. 

I Financial  Condition  at  the  End  of  the  First  Year 

The  settler  who  purchases  40  acres  of  land  and  has  sufficient 
cash  to  meet  the  one-fourth  down  re(iuirement,  and  enough  more 
to  put  on  the  usual  improvements  and  equipment,  will,  by  the 
time  the  year  is  over,  have  invested  $1,000  to  $1,500.  His  ex- 
penses for  travel,  freiglit,  feed,  seed,  and  living  cannot  have 
been  less  than  $500  to  $800.  It  will  generally  be  the  case  that 
his  inventory  will  amount  to  enough  more  than  it  cost,  together 
with  his  income  in  money  and  pi'oduce  to  balance  his  unusual 
expenses  due  to  moving.  Where  this  is  the  case,  a balance  sheet 
will  show  little  })i‘ogress,  but  at  the  same  time  the  fact  remains 
that  the  settlei'  is  established.  Ii(‘  has  })ut  himself  into  a posi- 
tion to  take  advantage  of  the  ()[)portiinit ies  afforded  by  a de- 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


veloping  region,  and  he  should  feel  that  this  opportunity  plus 
a living  is  a good  showing  for  the  first  year. 

Nature  of  expenditures.  The  majority  of  settlers  are  tempted 
to  feel,  along  toward  the  end  of  the  first  or  second  year,  that 
farm  development  is  one  continuous  round  of  expense  in  labor 
and  money  with  practically  no  returns.  In  some  respects  they 
are  right,  but  they  must  remember  that  their  expenditures  of 
labor,  and  most  of  their  expenditure  of  capital,  are  in  the  form 
of  an  investment.  The  settler  invests  in  a small  seed  and  later 
reaps  a rutabaga,  he  invests  $100  in  a cow,  and  with  care  finally 
has  a valuable  herd,  or  he  invests  his  labor  in  clearing  and  gets 
as  his  return  a productive  farm.  Indeed,  the  settler’s  chances 
of  success  depend  primarily  on  the  proportion  of  such  invest- 
ments he  is  able  to  make.  If  he  is  so  badly  cramped  financially 
that  he  has  to  use  his  money  and  most  of  his  time  to  provide 
living  expenses  he  had,  ordinarily,  better  stay  off  cut-over  land 
until  he  is  able  to  provide  the  investment  capital  or  can  borrow 
it,  since  his  early  money  returns  from  farming  are  small,  and  a 
large  part  of  that  return  depends  on  the  growth  of  invested 
capital.  Farming  is  a business  that  requires  comparatively 
large  investment,  and  to  make  a success  at  it  the  man  must  have 
the  capital  or  be  able  to  get  it  on  credit,  and  on  credit  adapted 
to  the  amount  of  necessary  investment  and  the  nature  of  the  re- 
turn. Dairy  farms,  particularly,  require  large  investments  in 
both  fixed  and  working  capital. 

Expenditures  the  Second  and  Third  Years 

Living  and  operating  expense.  The  merchants  who  sell  their 
goods  to  settlers,  and  the  experienced  farmers  of  the  neighbor- 
hood say  that  the  majority  of  settlers  will  lack  at  least  $150  of 
making  living  and  operating  expenses  from  their  land  the  sec- 
ond year,  especially  where  interest  and  taxes  are  included ; but 
that  if  they  have  no  bad  luck  and  make  normal  progress  they 
will  just  about  be  able  to  cover  these  expenses  the  third  year. 
The  settlers  talked  with  and  those  who  answered  a question- 
naire relative  to  the  matter  almost  always  said  that  it  would 
take  from  three  to  five  years  where  there  were  no  buildings  or 
clearing  to  start  with,  which  bears  out  at  least  the  conserva- 
tiveness of  the  foregoing  estimate.  If  buildings  could  be  pru- 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin 


11 


vided  at  the  outset,  this  period  of  time  could  be  cut  down  con- 
siderably. 

Investment  expense.  The  majority  of  settlers  will  be  able  to 
clear  enough  land  the  second  year  to  provide  most  of  the  feed 
for  at  least  a second  cowl  The  third  year  the  clearing  should 
be  enlarged  sufficiently  to  provide  the  feed  for  one  or  two  addi- 
tional cow^s  and  they  should  be  obtained.  The  majority  of  set- 
tlers wdll  need,  then,  at  least  $350  from  the  end  of  the  first  year 
to  the  end  of  the  third  year  for  operating  and  investment  ex- 
pense. If  the  settler  has  less  than  this  the  chances  are  he  will 
not  make  the  progress  he  should. 

Before  the  settler  makes  much  progress  as  a farmer,  he  must 
have  command  of  not  less  than  $2,000  wmrth  of  property.  This 
includes  $1,000  in  the  form  of  land.  Whether  he  must  possess 
the  $2,000  is  quite  another  question.  A colonization  company 
may  carry  him  along  on  any  amount,  even  down  to  nothing.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  interest  charge  on  the  $2,000  is 
.only  $120  a year  and  with  high  wages  and  hard  work  a man 
may  overcome  the  disadvantage  of  not  possessing  the  capital. 
The  advantage  is  with  the  man  who  has  this  amount  of  money. 
The  one  who  undertakes  to  get  along  wdth  much  less  should  first 
make  connections  wdth  those  who  are  able  to  help  him  and  then 
satisfy  himself  that  the  outlook  is  favorable. 

Other  costs.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  figures  given  allow 
nothing  for  losses  due  to  misfortune  of  any  kind.  In  order  to 
get  a fair  estimate  of  their  chances  of  success  as  farm-makers, 
a certain  amount  ought  to  be  deducted  for  sickness  of  the  man 
or  his  family,  death  of  livestock,  and  partial  crop  failures.  The 
importance  of  these  items  is  showm  by  the  replies  from  thirty- 
one  land  agents  as  to  wffiaf  reasons  were  offered  by  the  settler 
for  wmnting  extension  of  contract  payment.  Eight  of  these 
wxre  for  sickness,  six  poor  crops,  four  bad  luck,  and  thirteen 
need  of  money  to  live  on. 

Capital  equipment  of  settlers.  All  available  evidence  goes  to 
show  that  the  great  majority  of  settlers  buying  cut-over  land  in 
upper  Wisconsin  have  much  less  than  $2,000  to  start  with.  An 
average  wmuld  certainly  not  be  fai-  from  $500.  There  are  some 
who  liave  much  moi*e  than  that,  but  many  have  less.  It  is  the 
condition  of  the  settlers  who  are  more  or  less  dependent  that 
needs  most  attention.  Many  instances  might  be  pointed  out  in 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


which  the  settler  purchased  cut-over  land  with  less  than  $500, 
and  with  liberal  terms  from  the  land  company  soon  made  him- 
self independent,  a fact  which  is  certainly  encouraging  to  the 
average  purchaser.  It  is  frequently  claimed  that  a man  with 
proper  ability  and  energy  , can  settle  on  cut-over  land  with  $500, 
and  if  he  shows  that  he  means  to  make  good  can  get  the  credit 
as  he  needs  it  for  land  development  purposes.  Certainly  some 
are  able  to  get  a little  credit  for  other  improvement  purposes  but 
ordinarily  it  is  insufficient,  uncertain,  and  often  at  high  rates. 
Even  though  it  be  granted  that  such  a man  is  able  to  get  all  the 
credit  he  needs  for  such  things  as  land  clearing  machinery  and 
the  purchase  of  livestock,  that  still  does  not  provide  living  ex- 
pense or  tell  what  the  great  mass  of  settlers  are  doing  and  get- 
ting. Indeed,  as  has  been  stated,  the  pioneer  needs  at  least 
$2,000  in  capital  or  in  capital  and  credit  to  make  normal  prog- 
ress in  developing  a farm  on  cut-over  land. 

In  order  to  have  as  true  a picture  as  possible,  first-hand  ob- 
servations were  made  in  various  sections.  These  were  supple- 
mented by  the  testimony  of  the  county  agents,  the  bankers,  the 
real  estate  dealers,  successful  farmers,  settlers,  mercliants  selling 
to  settlers,  and  editors. 

AVHAT  THE  COUNTY  AGENTS  SAY 

1.  A majority  of  settlers  are  unable  to  judge 

farm  values,  especially  to  soil  fer- 
tility, cost  of  clearing  and  climatic 
. conditions. 

2.  Land  is  being  sold  for  agricultural  pur- 

poses that  because  of  lack  of  soil  fer- 
tility, location,  and  other  reasons  ought 
not  be  sold  for  such  purposes,  at  least 
for  the  present. 

3.  Small  dairy  farming  with  perhaps  some 

money  crop  like  potatoes  in  the  rota- 
tion is  the  surest  type  of  farming  in  up- 
per Wisconsin. 

4.  The  majority  of  settlers  do  not  know  what 

returns  they  may  reasonably  expect  for 
the  first  five  years. 

5.  The  chief  causes  of  failure  of  settlers 

in  cut-over  land  are: 

(a)  Lack  of  capital  and  credit. 

(b)  Lack  of  knowledge  of  land  clear- 

ing and  of  other  problems  of 
developing  cut-over  land. 

(c)  Wife  dissatisfied. 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin 


13 


(d)  Lack  of  knowledge  as  to  the  best 

type  of  farming  for  the  new 
locality. 

(e)  Failure  to  appreciate  the  longlh  of 

time  it  takes  to  develop  a farm 
on  cut-over  land. 

(f)  Buying  worthless  land. 

(g)  Buying  too  much  land  for  their 

supply  of  capital. 

(h)  Lack  of  ability  on  part  of  settler. 

(i)  Settler  meets  with  adversity  such 

as  sickness. 

6.  The  number  of  failures  in  upper  Wiscon- 
sin, as  reported  by  the  county  agents, 
varies  from  about  2 per  cent  in  one 
county  to  as  high  as  75  per  cent  in 
another. 

AVHAT  THE  BANKERS  SAY 

1.  Will  lend  about  5 0 per  cent  of  the  value 

of  the  land. 

2.  The  settlers  usually  want  to  borrow 

money  to  pay  land  contracts,  to  make 
improvements'  in  building  or  clearing, 
or  to  buy  live  stock. 

3.  The  loan  is  usually  made  at  6 per  cent 

though  it  may  go  as  high  as  8 per  cent. 

4.  Loans  are  usually  made  on  straight  time 

and  run  from  3 to  5 years. 

5.  From  75  to  90  per  cent  of  the  farmers 

want  renewal  when  their  mortgages 
come  due.  It  is  usually  granted. 

6.  About  half  the  banks  charge  a commis- 

sion for  handling  mortgages. 

7.  Not  over  4 0 per  cent  of  the  mortgages 

sold  are  sold  locally. 

8.  The  rate  of  interest  on  chattel  mortgages 

is  from  7 to  10  per  cent. 

9.  Most  of  the  banks  in  the  cut-over  regions 

have  more  applications  for  loans  than 
they  can  supply. 

10.  Most  of  the  banker's  assert  that  the  pres- 
ent system  of  financing  the  settler  is 
inadequate. 


WHAT  THE  REAL  ESTATE  .MEN  SAY 

1.  Reports  from  57  large  land  companies  out 

of  a possible  100  show  about  1800  sales 
for  1917. 

2.  About  half  the  settlers  were  native  and 

half  foreign. 

3.  About  90  per  cent  had  had  experience  as 

farmers. 

4.  The  average  capital  possessed  by  each 

was  very  little  above  $500. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


5.  The  usual  price  of  land  is  $20  to  $25  an 

acre. 

6.  The  usual  minimum  payment  demanded 

for  40  acres  was  from  $100  to  $200. 

7.  About  four-fifths  of  the  companies  re- 

porting furnish  no  equipment  with  the 
land. 

8.  Most  of  the  companies  grant  a deed  when 

half  the  purchase  price  is  paid,  about  a 
fourth  demand  all  cash  and  the  rest 
grant  it  on  a payment  of  a third  or 
fourth. 

9.  Payments  on  the  contract  or  mortgage  us- 

ually begin  the  first  year  and  are  sup- 
posed to  be  made  in  full  within  about 
five  years.  Some  companies  grant 
much  more  liberal  terms,  especially  in 
exemptions  the  first  year  or  two  from 
any  payment  on  principal  and  interest. 

10.  The  interest  rate  is  almost  invariably 

6 per  cent. 

11.  Most  of  the  replies  state  that  from  75 
to  90  per  cent  of  the  settlers  want  ex- 
tension of  time,  as  their  resources  are 
needed  for  additional  farm  improve- 
ments. 

12.  Renewals  are  granted  by  letting  the  past 
due  notes  run  over. 

13.  The  usual  excuses  for  wanting  exten- 

sion are  need  of  money  for  improve- 
ments, living  expenses,  sickness,  or 
failure  to  produce  a crop. 

14.  Most  companies  report  rendering  the 

settlers  much  moral,  educational,  and 
financial  assistance  without  which 
their  chances  of  success  would  be 
materially  lessened. 

15.  Practically  all  felt  a need  of  a better 
system  of  financing  settlers. 


WHAT  THE  FARMERS  AND  SETTEERS  SAY 

The  chief  causes  of  failure  in  their  opinion 
are;  land  sharks,  high-priced  land,  lack 
of  credit,  and  difficulty  of  land  clearing. 

Practically  100  per  cent  say  it  costs  more 
to  clear  land  than  they  were  led  to 
believe. 

About  75  per  cent  buy  on  contract  with  a 
small  payment  down.  The  better  com- 
panies do  not  require  the  purchaser 
to  make  any  further  payment  for  two 
or  three  years.  He  needs  his  income 
for  other  purposes. 

About  80  per  cent  report  being  unable  to 
meet  their  payments  as  they  fall  due. 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin  15 


They  estimate  that  where  a settler  has  no 
clearing  to  begin  with  that  it  takes  from 
two  to  five  years  to  get  enough  land 
cleared  on  which  to  make  a living.  This 
does  not  include  increased  value  of  land. 

Ninety  per  cent  say  they  cannot  get  as  much 
credit  as  they  need. 

Markets  are  usually  poor. 

A great  m^any  report,  especially  from  cer- 
tain sections,  that  they  did  not  get  as 
good  land  as  they  anticipated. 

The  information  is  based  on  about  100  sample  letters,  and  on  personal 
conversation  with  settlers  in  different  sections. 


FINANCIAL  NEEDS  FOR  FARM  DEVELOPMENT 

Peculiar  Credit  Needs  for  Developing  Cut-over  Lands 

The  settler  developing  cut-over  land  faces  very  different  finan- 
cial problems  from  those  developing  prairie  land  or  buying  im- 
proved farms.  On  the  prairie  land  there  is  not  a very  wide 
margin  between  the  value  of  raw  land  and  plowed  land.  This 
forces  the  man  on  the  prairie  to  have  a considerable  sum  to  make 
his  initial  payments.  But  having  once  secured  his  land,  the 
cost  and  time  of  getting  it  into  cultivation  are  .small  items.  If 
weather  conditions  are  favorable  he  can  make  a living  on  his 
land  after  the  first  year.  He  needs  a type  of  credit  that  will 
give  him  exemption  from  any  further  land-debt  payment  until 
he  has  made  his  improvements,  and  then  a system  that  will 
spread  out  his  payments  over  a number  of  years. 

A man  can  obtain  cut-over  land  with  comparatively  small  in- 
vestment, and  that  with  a very  small  payment  down.  But  the 
settler  developing  a farm  in  the  woods  must  reserve  a much 
larger  sum  for  living  and  developing  expense,  since  it  will  take 
him  from  three  to  five  ^Tars  to  make  liis  farm  a self-sustaining 
unit.  The  type  of  credit  this  man  needs  is  not  alone  land  credit, 
important  though  that  may  be,  but  credit  for  living  expense  and 
farm  development  investments  as  well.  There  must  be  some 
arrangement  made  whereby  these  may  be  advanced  to  the  settler 
in  proportion  to  his  rate  of  progress. 

Type  of  Farming  and  Land  Debt  Payment 

Mixed  dairying  best  type  of  farming.  The  individual  un- 
familiar with  conditions  of  the  settler  on  cut-over  land  in  upper 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


Wisconsin  might  easily  get  the  impression  that  the  settlers  the 
next  year,  after  having  improved  their  farms  sufficiently  to  per- 
mit making  a living  on  them,  would  begin  to  pay  off  land  debts, 
provided  they  had  made  no  others.  The  answers  to  question- 
naires sent  to  the  real  estate  dealers  and  bankers  show  that  this 
is  not  true,  but  on  the  other  hand  they  are  just  reaching  the 
point  of  wanting  a larger  loan  than  the  original  purchase  price. 
This  circumstance  is  explained  by  the  county  agents  in  their 
answers  to  a question  relative  to  the  best  type  of  farming  for 
upper  Wisconsin.  It  is  preeminently  the  opinion  of  the  experi- 
enced farmers  and  others  who  have  made  a study  of  conditions 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  state,  that  small  dairy  farming  with 
a money  crop  in  the  rotation  is  the  surest  method  of  agriculture 
in  this  section.  The  intelligent  settler  is  soon  convinced  of  this 
fact,  for  it  furnishes  him  something  to  do  that  yields  a steady 
income  throughout  the  year,  thereby  enabling  him  to  utilize 
more  completely  not  only  his  own  labor,  but  frequently  that  of 
members  of  his  family.  Also,  there  is  considerable  growth  in 
the  size  of  his  investment  through  the  natural  increase  in  his 
herd.  It  also  furnishes  him  a market  for  his  hay,  and  supplies 
in  abundance  needed  fertilizer  of  the  best  quality. 

Why  Some  Settlers  Fail  to  Get  Out  of  the  Pioneering 

Stage 

A prominent  land  company  in  the  state  made  a study  of  the 
farm  policies  and  financial  conditions  of  its  settlers  who  were 
neither  making  their  payments  nor  giving  explanations  of  ^Yhy 
they  were  not.  The  study  revealed  rather  accurately  the  finan- 
cial standing  and  farm  policies  of  the  men.  The  facts  standing 
out  most  clearly  were  that  the  settlers  with  no  cows,  or  few 
cowSj  were  almost  always  drifting  to^rard  the  wall ; that  in  most 
cases  they  had  made  a small  clearing  and  were  farming  it  inten- 
sively with  but  very  little  capital ; that  the  soil  they  were  cul- 
tivating was  almost  pure  sand;  and  that  they  were  cropping  it 
in  potatoes  without  rotation,  a practice  which  would  ordinarily 
consume  the  larger  part  of  the  fertility  in  three  years.  These 
men  may  clear  enough  new  land  each  year  on  which  to  eke  out 
a bare  existence,  but  paying  for  the  farm  or  making  any  sub- 
stantial improvements  is  out  of  the  question.  They  are  in  a vi- 
cious circle.  They  have  no  basis  of  credit  until  they  change 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin 


17 


their  policy,  and  they  cannot  change  their  policy  nntil  they 
get  credit.  The  conditions  certainly  are  worse  on  the  light 
sandy  soils  described,  bnt  even  on  the  better  lands  such  a policy 
retards  very  materially  the  possible  rate  of  progress. 

The  land  companies’  point  of  view.  The  land  companies  op- 
erating in  upper  Wisconsin  are,  as  a rule,  as  liberal  in  their 
granting  of  terms  to  the  settler  as  could  reasonably  be  expected. 
In  most  cases  they  require  payments  on  their  contracts  on  a five- 
year  basis  with  the  ‘‘on  or  before”  privilege.  Some  specifically 
exempt  the  settler  from  payment  of  any  sort  except  tax,  or  tax 
and  interest,  for  two  or  three  years.  However,  from  80  to  90 
per  cent  of  the  settlers  ask  for  extension  of  time,  which  shows 
that  five  years  is  not  sufficient  for  land  debt  payment.  The  land 
company  feels,  when  the  settler  begins  to  make  money  above  his 
living  expenses,  that  since  the  company  gave  liberal  terms  in 
the  first  stages  of  development  it  ought  not  to  be  called  upon 
to  wait  for  the  overdue  payments  while*  the  settler  goes  ahead 
investing  capital  that  legally  belongs  to  it.  From  their  point  of 
view  there  is  no  reason  why  the  settler  who  happens  to  have  a 
little  ready  cash  should  buy  an  extra  cow  rather  than  settle  a 
past  due  note.  It  is  natural  for  the  land  company  to  want  its 
money  as  quickly  as  it  can  get  it,  since  its  capital  is  needed  in 
connection  with  its  business. 

The  settlers’  point  of  view.  Most  settlers  are  properly 
afraid  of  debts  that  have,  in  case  they  fail  to  meet  them,  the 
power  to  take  away  their  entire  savings.  The  practices  of  some 
land  agents  and  coiiijnercial  bankers  have  made  the  settlers  un- 
duly suspicious  of  these  two  classes.  The  settler,  ever  reminded 
that  the  land  company  is  in  need  of  its  money,  naturally  feels 
worried  over  his  debt  and  his  agricultural  policy  is  affected  for 
the  worse. 

Lack  of  Credit  Results  in  Short-time  Farm  Policy 

The  settlers  make  as  few  permanent  inqirovoments  as  it  is  pos- 
sible to  get  along  Mith.  They  go  slowly  into  the  stock  business 
for  they  have  not  the  barn  room.  They  are  inclined  to  go  into 
that  tj^pe  of  farming  tiiat  offers  the  quickest  return  with  the 
least  outlay  of  cash,  cultivating  rather  intensively  some  money 
crop  like  iiotatoes,  where  a large  part  of  the  expense  in  planting, 
tillage,  and  harvesting  is  buman  lalior  c()inl)ined  wi1b  the  sinij)- 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


lest  and  cheapest  tools.  This  ''short  time’’  policy,  as  it  is  called 
in  this  bulletin,  is  the  worst  kind.  The  settler  is  in  a country 
where  land  is  supposed  to  be  comparatively  cheap  and  labor 
high.  For  the  most  economical  farming  this  would  mean  the 
use  of  a large  amount  ol  land,  and  a substitution  of  machinery 
for  labor  as  far  as  possible.  The  facts  do  not  correspond  to  this 
principle.  The  settler  buys  40  or  80  acres,  puts  a few  acres  into 
good  tillage  for  his  special  crop,  and  leaves  the  other  80  or  90 
per  cent  of  his  land  untouched.  He  has,  therefore,  a very  large 
proportion  of  his  investment  in  land  that,  so  far  as  immediate 
results  are  concerned,  is  yielding  no  return  other  than  summer 
pasturage,  and  at  the  same  time  he  is  having  to  force  a few" 
acres  to  pay  the  interest  charge  on  the  whole  investment.  Some 
settlers  are  in  the  peculiar  position  of  having  too  much  land 
and  still  not  having  enough,  due  to  the  fact  that  80  or  90  per 
cent  of  their  land  is  not  cleared  and  is,  therefore,  not  only  not 
a basis  of  operation,  but  a dead  weight  on  their  hands. 

Labor  conditions.  The  land  conditions  have  a tendency  to 
force  a labor  situation  that  is  economically  and  socially  very  un- 
desirable. The  removal  of  brush  requires  a great  deal  of  hand 
labor,  and  a good  brush  ax  or  scythe  is  about  all  the  capital  re- 
quired. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  very  uneconomical  to  substi- 
tute human  labor  for  horse  or  mechanical  power  in  the  removal 
of  logs  and  stumps.  There  are  settlers  in  upper  Wisconsin  try- 
ing to  clear  land  with  less  than  $50  worth  of  capital.  These 
men  soon  come  to  the  conclusion  that  at  best  two  or  three  acres 
will  be  all  they  can  do,  and  that  that  amount  of  clearing  will  not 
justify  the  purchase  of  a team.  The  result  is  that  about  the 
only  horse  power  used  is  in  breaking  the  newly  cleared  land. 
The  crop  is  planted  and  wmrked  by  hand,  the  wife  and  children 
doing  a great  part  of  it.  Even  so,  the  man  must  spend  a large 
part  of  his  time  on  two  or  three  acres.  The  laborer  is  forced 
into  this  unprofitable  task  by  a lack  of  capital,  a situation  that 
might  be  avoided  by  having  a better  system  of  credit. 

Equipment  Needed  at  the  End  of  the  Pioneering  Stage 

The  farmer  who  adopts  the  best  farm  policy  from  the  start 
has  by  the  fourth  year  accumulated  a herd  of  perhaps  ten  head 
of  cattle.  Most  settlers  begin  on  cut-over  land  with  barns  and 
other  equipment  of  the  most  temporary  sort.  If  they  make  nor- 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin 


19 


mal  progress  they  will  complete  their  pioneering  operations  by 
the  fourth  year.  Their  farm  machinery  is  then  not  in  keeping 
with  the  nature  and  size  of  their  farm  units.  Therefore,  each 
one  is  all  but  compelled  to  buy  a wagon,  a mower,  a rake,  more 
plows^  and  another  horse,  and  there  is  considerable  other  equip- 
ment he  ought  to  have,  which  at  present  prices  will  cost  at  leasl; 
$400.  The  temporary  barn  is  too  small  to  accommodate  the  in- 
creased stock  and  feed  supply.  This  either  means  that  the  farmer 
has  to  sell  his  cows  and  proceed  on  the  short-time  policy  of  rais- 
ing crops  for  the  market,  or  he  must  build  larger  barns.  A barn 
large  enough  to  accommodate  the  increasing  herd  for  even  a 
half  dozen  years  will  require  from  $1,200  to  $1,500. 

The  agriculturists  say  that  with  a herd  of  10  cows  it  will  be 
economical  to  build  a silo  where  silage  crops  are  fairly  certain.^ 
A silo  sufficient  to  accommodate  10  or  15  cows  will  cost  $300. 
In  addition  to  all  this,  there  is  a great  amount  of  equipment 
needed  to  operate  effectively  a small  dairy  farm.  The  owner 
must  have  a cream  separator,  milk  pails,  cream  cans,  and  other 
necessary  utensils.  All  such  necessary  equipment  cannot  pos- 
sibly be  bought  for  less  than  $150.  Thus,  to  maintain  the  proper 
balance  between  land,  labor,  and  capital,  the  farmer  will  need  to 
invest,  in  addition  to  the  price  of  his  land,  between  $2,000  and 
$3,000. 

Cost  of  Equipping  a 40-acre  Diversified  Dairy  Farm 

Dairying,  with  a cash  crop  in  the  rotation,  is  recognized  as 
the  best  method  of  farming  in  upper  Wisconsin.  For  a diversi- 
fied dairy  farm  of  this  sort,  40  acres  has  been  taken  as  a unit 
because  the  prevailing  size  of  farm  in  the  cut-over  regions  is, 
at  the  present  time,  small.  The  writers  do  not  mean  to  say  that 
40  acres  is  the  best  size  for  a diversified  dairy  farm ; on  the  other 
hand,  they  are  convinced  that  under  normal  conditions  it  is  too 
small,  and  that  there  will  be  a strong  tendency  toward  consoli- 
dating the  smaller  farms. 

It  is  assumed  that  this  farm  is  so  planned  as  to  get  the  maxi- 
mum long-time  net  profit  tlu'ough  a daii’y  herd  and  through  a 
cash  crop  in  the  field  rotation.  With  this  in  mind  it  is  assumed 
that  the  farmer  will  keep  at  least  ten  cows,  three  horses,  six 


* In  many  of  the  northern  counties  root  ci'ops  arc  much  more  reliable,  in 
which  case  a silo  will  not  be  needed. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


sows,  and  one  hundred  fowls.  The  crop  will  consist  largely 
of  hay,  corn  silage  (or  where  corn  is  inadvisable,  oats  and  peas, 
or  roots),  some  small  grain,  and  potatoes. 

To  summarize  the  expenses  and  investments  of  a typical 
40-acre  settler,  it  will  be  safe  to  say  that  a fairly  good  house, 
barn  and  other  buildings  would  have  cost  before  the  recent  sharp 
advances  in  prices  not  less  than  $3,000 ; fences  not  far  from 
$300 ; horses  and  harness  by  the  time  three  horses  were  needed, 
say  $600;  cows,  pigs,  and  chickens,  perhaps  $1,200  to  $1,500; 
implements  and  machinery  in  the  neighborhood  of  $500.  Thus, 
by  the  time  the  settler  has  reached  the  stage  beyond  what  is  called 
pioneering,  he  will  need  to  have  at  his  command  some  $4,000  or 
$5,000  in  his  investment,  plus  whatever  is  required  over  prices 
and  costs  of  1917  or  1918. 

The  result  of  a lack  of  adequate  capital  to  begin  with  aggra- 
vated by  a system  of  credit  unsuited  to  the  development  of  cut- 
over land  is  that  the  farmer  of  small  means  is  forced  to  stay  too 
long  in  the  pioneering  stage.  When  such  living  is  thus  prolonged 
it  may  result  in  conditions  which  are  socially  and  economically 
very  undesirable,  for  the  crop  returns  are  extremely  low  until 
the  farmer  gets  equipment. 

The  one  great  inducement  held  out  to  the  settler  by  land  com- 
panies to  compensate  for  the  disadvantages  mentioned  is  an  in- 
crease in  land  values.  The  settler  must  realize,  however,  that 
his  increased  land  value  will  be  measured  by  his  rate  of  progress 
in  farm  development,  and  not  in  any  magic  increase  in  land 
prices.  If  he  does  not  have  the  capital  to  develop  his  land  he 
may  find  his  interest  and  taxes  greater  than  the  gains  due  to  the 
general  rise  in  the  price  of  land. 

FARM  CREDIT 

Financial  Characteristics  of  a New  Country 

The  amount  of  credit  obtainable  by  a settler  at  any  given  time 
in  a given  community  depends  upon  many  factors,  which  may  be 
grouped  under  two  main  heads.  It  depends,  in  the  first  place, 
upon  the  available  loan  funds,  and  the  operation  of  the  financial 
machinery.  It  depends,  in  the  second  place,  upon  the  resources 
of  the  borrower,  which  includes  the  character  of  the  man  and  his 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin  21 


iamily,  his  accumulated  financial  reserve,  and  the  response  of  the 
money  lenders  to  his  demands. 

Problems  of  the  borrower.  It  is  a well  known  fact  that  new 
countries,  and  more  especially  agricultural  countries,  are  always 
more  or  less  inadequately  supplied  with  capital.  This  is  true 
for  several  reasons.  The  great  bulk  of  labor  such  as  would 
produce  goods  for  sale  in  an  old  country  goes  into  permanent 
improvement  values.  In  a cut-over  region  large  amounts  of 
labor  and  capital  are  used  in  clearing  and  other  improvements 
of  the  land  which  appear  simply  as  increased  land  values.  Large 
amounts  of  labor  and  capital  are  necessarily  put  into  farra 
buildings,  which  is  another  form  of  long-time  investment  where 
the  returns  are  not  immediate.  Instead  of  a surplus  of  animals 
for  sale  there  is  still  need  for  enlarging  the  herds,  and  new  set- 
tlers are  constantly  starting  new  herds  so  that  cattle  have  to  be 
continually  imported.  On  the  other  hand,  those  animals  un- 
suited for  breeding  stock  are  frequently  sold  for  less  than  such 
animals  would  sell  for  in  the  older  communities  where  there  is  a 
real  surplus.  The  settler  may  expect  this,  since  the  small  num- 
ber for  sale  prevents  the  establishment  of  satisfactory  market 
machinery.  This  is  not  only  true  for  livestock  but  for  all  other 
products  the  settler  usually  has  for  sale.  In  other  words,  the 
settler  may  ordinarily  expect  to  have  to  pay  high  prices  for  what 
he  buys,  and  take  comparatively  low  prices  for  what  he  sells. 
Getting  together  sufficient  farm  machinery  and  buildings,  as 
Avell  as  enough  cleared  land,  has  to  be  done  before  the  land  will 
produce  much.  Hence,  a large  part  of  the  capital  for  the  de- 
velopment of  a new  country  must  come  from  the  older  communi- 
ties. Otherwise  the  rate  of  development  is  exceedingly  slow, 
and  the  proportion  of  failures  large. 

Such  a condition  is  further  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  most 
of  the  settlers  in  a new  country,  especially  in  the  cut-over  sec- 
tions, have  but  little  pro})erty  and  financial  backing  in  the  older 
section  from  which  they  came,  and  what  little  credit  they  may 
have  had  in  their  old  homes  is  usually  terminated  when  they 
move  to  a new  section.  In  a pioneer  country,  then,  each  set- 
tler represents  a demand  for  capital,  and  but  few  bring  with 
them  the  means  or  connections  to  satisfy  that  demand. 

Problems  of  the  lender.  The  financial  institutions  of  a new 
country  are  new  and  comparatively  small.  The  banks  are  few, 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


with  small  capital  and  small  deposits.  Most  people  are  borrow- 
ers ; individuals  with  money  to  lend  are  few.  The  large  sources 
of  outside  capital,  like  insurance  companies  and  big  mortgage 
banks,  have  not  yet  been  attracted,  since  the  amount  of  business 
available  for  them  is  small  and  not  suited  to  their  standards. 
Every  dollar  the  farmer  gets  he  needs  to  put  back  into  his  farm 
in  one  way  or  another,  so  that  the  capital  of  a new  country  cir- 
culates very  slowly.  The  result  is  that  almost  all  the  bankers 
in  the  rapidly  developing  section  of  upper  Wisconsin  report  a 
greater  demand  for  loans  than  they  are  able  to  supply. 

In  order  properly  to  finance  a new  country  all  the  foregoing 
facts  must  be  taken  into  account.  The  one  great  function  of 
the  state  with  regard  to  the  situation  is  to  make  possible  at  least 
the  organization  of  adequate  machinery  for  establishing  and 
maintaining  the  closest  possible  financial  connections  between 
the  new  country  and  the  old  country. 

Types  of  Settlers  Needing  Credit. 

The  settlers  from  the  bankers’  standpoint  are  of  two  classes. 
The  first  is  the  class  already  able  to  meet  obligations  about  as 
they  become  due.  They  are  above  the  50  per  cent  margin  of 
land  ownership  and,  consequently,  able  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves. They  can  borrow  at  a bank,  can  get  money  from  the 
F’ederal  Land  Bank,  or  can  deal  with  a local  money  lender. 
This  class  can  take  care  of  itself.  The  second  class  consists  of 
those  who  have  not  reached  the  stage  of  independence  in  facing 
a money  lender.  They  hold  their  land  on  a contract  and  re- 
quire help,  and  perhaps  patience,  from  the  colonization  com- 
pany. 

The  type  of  credit  needed.  As  is  generally  understood,  each 
type  of  settler  is  in  need  of  at  least  two  types  of  credit.  In  the 
first  place,  each  is  in  need  of  long-time  credit  for  the  purpose 
of  paying  land  debts  and  making  permanent  improvements.  In 
the  second  place,  each  needs  short  time  credit  to  finance  crop 
operations.  It  might  well  be  said,  also,  that  a third  type  is 
needed,  one  more  or  less  in  between  these  two,  for  the  purchase 
of  livestock  and  machinery. 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin 


23 


Present  Agencies  of  Farm  Credits 

The  chief  state  provisions  for  better  rural  credit  are  the  ex- 
emption of  farm  mortgages  from  taxation,  the  laws  permitting 
state  banks,  trust  companies  and  savings  banks  to  lend  on  first 
farm  mortgages,  the  provisions  for  the  organization  of  land 
mortgage  associations,  co-operative  credit  associations,  the 
county  stump-bond  law,  and  a tolerant  attitude  toward  outside 
capital. 

The  state  banks.  The  state  banks  have  been  the  greatest 
factor  in  furnishing  farm  credit  in  upper  Wisconsin.  They 
have  been  unable  to  meet  the  demand,  however,  of  even  those 
who  had  ample  security,  largely  because  of  a banking  system 
organization  which  renders  it  difficult  to  get  all  the  desired  aid 
from  the  older  communities. 

Land  mortgage  associations.  In  order  more  effectively  to 
meet  the  demand  for  farm  loans  coming  especially  from  the 
northern  counties,  the  state  passed  in  1913  an  act  creating  land 
mortgage  associations.  There  have  been  only  two  organized  and 
their  combined  issue  of  bonds  on  real  estate  in  November,  1917, 
amounted  to  $270,500.  According  to  the  commissioner  of  bank^ 
ing  these  bonds  found  a ready  market,  which  indicates  that  in- 
vestors do  not  fear  bonds  based  nn  a 65  per  cent  margin  of  real 
estate  value.  At  present  these  banks  are  too  few  and  too  small 
to  affect  materially  the  credit  situation  in  upper  Wisconsin. 

The  possibilities  of  these  associations  was  greatly  enlarged, 
however,  by  an  amendment  of  the  act  in  1919  whereby  the  asso- 
ciations are  permitted  to  buy  mortgages  already  in  force  as  well 
as  to  make  new  mortgage  loans.  Quite  as  important  as  this,  if 
not  more  important,  the  associations  are  required  to  form  them- 
selves into  a council,  the  council  to  act  as  a unit  in  determining 
the  interest  rates  in  mortgages,  bonds,  and  other  conditions  of 
bond  issue.  By  this  means  it  is  hoped  that  the  business  may  be 
made  large  enough  to  pay,  as  well  as  to  combine  credits  in  the 
bonds  issued  so  as  to  reach  a wider  market  in  their  dispersal. 
Heretofore,  the  prospects  have  not  been  encouraging  to  single 
companies  acting  aloue. 

Mortgage  companies  and  other  farm  mortgage  investors. 
Two  or  three  large  mortgage  and  trust  companies  have  been  op- 
erating in  the  upper  Wisconsin  territory  and  have  been  a largo 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


factor  in  opening  the  financial  channels  bet^Yeen  the  old  and  the 
new  country.  The  recently  organized  Joint  Stock  Land  Bank 
of  Milwaukee  is  a step  in  the  right  direction,  for  it  represents  a 
comparatively  strong  financial  institution  in  an  investing  center 
Avith  a large  number  of  '‘corresponding  banks”  in  the  new  coun- 
try. A plan  someAvhat  similar  to  that  of  the  Joint  Stock  Land 
Bank,  and  in  some  respects  CA^en  more  adaptable  to  the  needs  of 
tlie  neAA^er  parts  of  the  state,  is  the  purchase  of  mortgages  from 
colonization  companies  by  trust  companies.  The  method  is  as 
f olloAvs : 

A colonization  company  makes  the  loans  to  its  settlers,  taking 
mortgages  as  security.  These  loans  may,  and  do,  run  from 
small  percentages  of  the  value  of  the  farms  on  which  they  are 
placed  up  to  70  per  cent.  The  trust  companies  AAUshing  to  be 
safe  require  a 50  per  cent  margin.  They  receive  from  the 
colonization  company,  hoAVCA^er,  a trust  deed  secured  by  a large 
number  of  indiAudual  mortgages  Avhich,  on  an  average,  must 
represent  not  to  exceed  50  per  cent  of  the  Amine  of  the  land  cov- 
ered. Thus,  should  it  become  necessary  to  foreclose  on  all  they 
Avould  recover  the  entire  amount.  Against  the  trust  deeds  the 
trust  companies  issue  and  sell  mortgage  bonds,  selling  $100,000 
in  bonds  against  $110,000  in  mortgages,. the  margin  of  10  per 
cent  being  a special  item  of  security  to  the  bond  purchaser. 
This  is  an  effecthm  and  economical  means  of  getting  mone^^ 
from  centers  of  plenty  to  places  of  scarcity.  Life  insurance 
companies  have  not  played  an  important  part  so  far,  but  have 
made  a start  in  buying  the  bonds  of  other  lending  institutions. 
Local  investors  in  the  newer  territory  are  so  few  that  they  need 
not  be  considered  here. 

The  Wisconsin  legislature  of  1913  passed  laAA’S  making  possible 
the  organization  of  cooperative  credit  associations  with  the  fol- 
loAving  poAvers:  "A  cooperative  credit  association  may  recehm 

the  savings  of  its  members  in  payment  for  shares  or  a deposit; 
may  lend  it  to  members  at  reasonable  rates  or  invest,  as  herein- 
after provided,  the  funds  so  accumulated ; and  may  conduct  also 
such  other  actiAuties  relating  to  purposes  of  the  association,  as 
its  by-laAA^s  may  authorize.”^  Up  to  the  present  time  not  one  of 
these  associations  has  been  formed  in  upper  Wisconsin,  due 
doubtless  to  the  absence  of  administrative  machinery.  The 


* Banking  Laws  of  Wisconsin,  1915. 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin  25 


County  Stump-Bond  Act  has  a splendid  purpose,  but  has  too 
many  serious  .defects  to  make  it  available  to  any  extent  until  the 
defects  have  been  remedied  by  amendment. 

Credit  Available  to  the  Settler  With  Money 

Credit  of  real  estate  companies.  The  first  credit  received 
by  the  new  settler  comes  almost  invariably  from  the  land  or 
colonization  company.  The  majority  of  settlers  pay  about  one- 
fourth  down  and  get  a term  of  from  three  to  five  years  on  the 
balance.  Most  of  them  are  not  in  a position  to  meet  the  pay- 
ments as  thej^  fall  due,  but  if  they  are  making  average  progress 
in  improving  their  places,  the  land  companies  will  almost  in- 
variably carry  the  payments,  though  often  without  written  ex- 
tension. the  time  the  whole  amount  is  due,  the  settler  who 
has  had  money  to  pay  his  running  expenses  will  usually  be  able 
to  procure  a mortgage  loan  from  the  bank  sufficient  to  meet  the 
land  contract.  This  type  of  credit  is  rather  negative,  since  the 
receiver  gets  nothing  that  will  help  him  to  produce  more  im- 
mediately. The  settler  gives  his  cash  and  promise  to  pay  for 
something  that  in  its  present  condition  is  comparatively  unpro- 
ductive, and  remains  so  until  it  is  improved  by  labor  and  capi- 
tal. It  is  to  the  interest  of  the  honest  land  company  as  well  as 
the  settler  to  put  as  much  as  possible  of  the  settler’s  capital  into 
land  clearing  and  operating  capital  rather  than  a large  per- 
centage into  a payment  on  the  land  contract.  The  settler  had 
better  beware  of  the  agent  who  wishes  to  take  a large  part  of 
his  capital  in  a first  payment  on  unimproved  land. 

Bank  credit.  The  long-time  bank  loan  is,  as  shown  by  the 
reports  of  the  Wisconsin  Farm  Mortgage  Association  of  Eau 
Claire  and  by  the  investigations  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
cultural Economics,*  almost  exclusively  for  the  payment  of  a 
land  debt,  presumably  the  contract  to  the  land  company.  A 
large  part  of  the  first  aid  the  settler  receives  from  the  bank  in 
long-time  credit  is  then  the  privilege  of  a transfer  of  his  source 
of  credit,  and  not  additional  working  capital.  Most  banks  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  state  are  rather  stiuct  in  holding  to  the 
50  per  cent  basis,  and  according  to  the  bankers’  own  testimony 
the  50  per  cent  is  not  based  on  what  the  settler  paid  the  land 
company  for  the  land,  but  the  j>rice  for  which  the  bank  could 


* “Farm  Creflit.s  in  Wisconsin,”  Wis.  Bill.  2i7. 


26 


WiscoNSiNT  Bulletin  318 


buy  similar  land.  In  illustrating  the  point  one  banker  said, 
“For  example,  a settler  pays  $1,000  for  a forty.  We  would  es- 
timate credit  on  it  at  about  $700.”  In  other' words,  the  settler 
would  have  to  pay  or  make  improvements  in  land  clearing  equal 
to  $650  before  he  could  expect  a loan  of  $350.  This  is  true  be- 
cause the  bank  lending  on  a 50  per  cent  margin  must  not  -only 
demand  that  half  the  $700  be  paid,  but  that  the  difference  be- 
tween what  the  settler  pays  and  what  the  banker  could  buy  such 
land  for  must  be  paid,  which  in  this  example,  is  $300.  This 
may  be  exceptional  as  to  the  amount  of  margin  between  the  price 
paid  by  the  settler  and  the  value  estimated  by  the  banker,  but 
it  is  plain,  nevertheless,  that  the  amount  paid,  or  to  be  paid, 
based  on  the  service  rendered  by  the  company,  can  hardly  be 
made  the  basis  of  a loan  until  values  have  risen,  or  at  least  have 
been  recognized.  On  the  other  hand,  the  company  cannot  render 
these  services  for  nothing,  while  from  the  settler’s  standpoint 
the  probability  is  that  nothing  he  buys  is  worth  more  than  what 
it  costs  than  is  the  service  furnished  by  the  colonization  com- 
pany. Frequently  the  settler’s  improvements  in  the  way  of  a 
house  and  barns  are  such  that  they  are  not  insurable,  and  where 
insurable  they  are  supposed  not  to  be  rated  at  more  than  20  per 
cent.  A great  majority  of  the  new  settlers  have  buildings  worth 
less  than  $500,  so  that  at  best  $100  would  be  all  that  could  pos- 
sibly be  obtained  on  a mortgage  loan  on  the  basis  of  the  build- 
ings. According  to  these  figures  the  settler  assumed  to  be  mak- 
ing normal  progress  would  at  the  end  of  the  third  or  fourth  year 
have  a possibility  of  a mortgage  loan  very  little  more  than 
enough  to  pay  his  land  contract.  The  report  of  the  Wisconsin 
Land  Mortgage  Association  of  Eau  Claire  shows  that  the  average 
loan  obtained  at  the  bank  upon  real  property  was  $160  above 
the  canceled  indebtedness.  Most  of  the  surplus  was  used  for 
land  clearing  and  living  expenses.  A few  bought  livestock,  and 
the  one  who  received  the  greatest  amount  ($442)  built  a barn. 
The  average  time  from  date  of  purchase  to  date  of  loan  was  a 
little  over  three  and  a half  years.  The  figures  on  page  11 
and  the  discussion  on  page  19  show  that  this  type  of  settler 
should  have  at  least  $2,000. 

Chattel  mortgage  credit.  The  chattel  mortgage  is  a source 
(.f  farm  credit  that  is  frequently  used  in  upper  Wisconsin,  and 
especially  by  the  new  settlers.  The  usual  form  is  a personal 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin  27 


note  guaranteed  by  certain  specified  chattels.  These  loans  bear 
a rate  of  interest  varying  from  7 to  10  per  cent,  that  is  1 to  2 
per  cent  higher  than  the  real  estate  loan  in  the  same  section,  and 
are  made  payable  rarely  later  than  one  year.  A wide  margin 
is  demanded  between  the  amount  of  the  loan  and  the  security, 
especially  for  new  settlers.  The  wide  margin,  the  high  rate  of 
interest,  and  the  short  time  make  these  loans  unsuited  for  the 
payments  of  land  debts  or  for  making  permanent  improvements. 
There  are  some  cases,  however,  where  the  settlers  have  had  to 
resort  to  such  loans  for  those  purposes.  The  chattel  mortgage 
is  best  suited  for  obtaining  money  for  supplies,  and  is  most 
frequently  so  used.  In  most  cases  it  is  cheaper  than  store  credit. 
It  is  used  for  the  purchase  of  livestock,  but  is  inadequate  in  that 
it  does  not  give  long  enough  time  for  repayment.* ** 

The  Ashland  dairy  plan.  There  is  a species  of  short-time 
credit  used  in  some  localities  which  is  making  splendid  progress 
in  supplying  the  need  of  money  for  purchase  of  dairy  cows. 
Probably  a large  majority  of  the  settlers  coming  into  upper  Wis- 
consin do  not  have  available  sufficient  money  or  credit  to  buy 
the  stock,  especially  cattle,  to  keep  their  farm  operations  well 
balanced.  It  is  found  that  the  credit  based  on  real  property  is 
not  available  and  is  unsuited  for  such  purposes.  Furthermore, 
the  ordinary  short-time  bank  credit  is  insufficient  in  time  and 
often  the  banker  is  unwilling  to  take  the  risk.  It  is,  of  course, 
entirely  out  of  the  province  of  the  ordinary  store  credit.  A few 
communities,  at  least,  have  partially  bridged  the  gap  by  what 
is  known  as  the  Ashland  Dairy  Plan.’’  This  scheme  of  modi- 
fied bank  credit  seems  to  have  originated  in  upper  Wisconsin 
among  the  bankers  and  other  business  men.  The  business  men 
of  the  town  sign  an  agreement  to  make  good  any  losses  the  bank 
may  sustain  in  providing  money  for  the  purchase  of  cows  to  re- 
sell to  farmers.  The  main  features  of  the  repayment  consist 
in  the  provision  for  a portion  of  the  milk,  cream,  or  butter  re- 
ceipts to  be  applied  monthly  on  the  account.  As  a rule,  about 
two  or  three  years  are  allowed  for  the  payment  of  the  price  of 
the  cow.  Experience  shows  this  amount  of  ci-cdit  to  be  ami)le.*  * 
Short-time  credit.  7’he  settler  has  ihmmI  of  short  time  crc'dit. 
This  need  is  strongest  in  tlie  financing  of  crop  operations,  moi-e 

*Wi.s.  nul.  2 47,  “Farm  Credits  in  Wi.^con.sin.”  Money  woidd  buy  mom 
when  this  report  was  issued  (1945)  than  now. 

**  The  plan  is  more  fully  described  in  Wis.  P.ul,  247. 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


especially  in  the  purchase  of  seed,  implements,  and,  frequently, 
groceries  and  other  supplies  to  be  paid  for  at  the  time  of  harvest. 
In  certain  sections  of  upper  Wisconsin  this  species  of  credit  is 
furnished  to  a very  large  extent  the  local  merchants  and  im  - 


INTEREST  RATES  ON  MORTGAGE  LOANS 


FIG.  3. — SHORT-TIME  AND  MORTGAGE  INTEREST  RATES  (1915) 

The  reports  of  several  bankers  in  each  county  fiunished  the  basis  in  estimating 
these  interest  rates  on  personal  and  on  mortgage  loans. 


plement  dealers.  This  type  of  credit  is  exceedingly  costly,  as 
shown  by  a former  study. ^ The  man  faiiW  well  established  in 
a community  has  but  little  trouble  :n  getting  this  type  of  short- 
time  credit,  especially  if  he  is  willing  to  pay  the  cost. 

*'Wis.  Bui.  247,  pp.  44-52.  The  map  is  taken  from  the  same  bulletin, 
p.  34.  Figures  apply  to  1915. 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin  29 

The  lenders  of  money  in  the  state  of  Wisconsin  have  been  as 
liberal  as  :n  any  state  in  their  provisions  for  farm  credit.  Wis- 
consin offers  to  farmers  the  lowest  rate  of  interest  of  any  state 
west  of  the  Alleghany  mountains,  her  average  rate  being  5.8 
per  cent.  The  average  rate  in  upper  Wisconsin  is  not  more 
than  1 per  cent  higher  than  the  state  average.  The  average 
length  of  time  of  farm  mortgage  loans  in  Wisconsin,  not  includ- 
ing Federal  Farm  Bank  loans,  is  4.9  years.  Only  seven  states 
in  the  union  have  a longer  period.  If  Wisconsin  expects  to 
maintain  her  present  standing  among  the  states  she  must  not 
hesitate,  however,  in  changing  her  laws  to  meet  changed  condi- 
tions. In  a progressive  age  to  stand  still  is  to  fall  behind. 

The  present  lending  agencies  cannot  offer  enough  credit  to 
the  pioneer  to  pay  his  land  contract  or  mortgage  to  the  land 
company,  and  at  the  same  time  furnish  the  capital  for  the  needed 
improvements.  The  farmer  is  thus  not  able  to  maintain  a nor- 
mal rate  of  development  since  barns,  silos,  and  the  like  have 
to  be  postponed  to  a future  when  money  is  available,  and  cannot 
be  built  economically  in  installments.  Farmers  meet,  these  prob- 
lems in  various  ways.  A few  are  able  to  get  all  the  credit  de- 
sired, some  change  the  type  of  farming  because  they  are  unable 
to  build  the  necessary  barns,  others  resort  to  a general  sloAving 
down  of  effort,  and  still  others  follow  a more  or  less  wasteful 
method  of  piecemeal  improvements. 

Credit  for  the  Settler  Practically  Moneyless 

The  inadequate  supply  of  credit  available  to  the  man  able  to 
get  a bank  loan  is  a hindrance  to  proper  farm  development 
rather  than  a cause  of  failure.  The  lack  of  credit  for  the  man 
unable  to  get  a loan  at  any  of  the  recognized  institutions  may 
result  disastrously. 

Typical  Settler  with  Little  Money 

• 

A very  usual  sort  of  settler  is  the  man  who  has  $500  or  less 
and  is  persuaded  to  purchase  land  by  the  agent  of  a land  com- 
pany, the  latter  depending  for  his  daily  bread  on  the  number 
and  amount  of  his  sales.  The  “prospect”  is  stimulated  by  the 
possibility  held  out  of  making  a living  from  the  start,  and  of 
making  and  paying  for  a farm  home  in  short  order.  The  settler 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


does  not  have  enough  money  to  pay  for  the  erection  of  the  neces- 
sary buildings  after  paying  his  moving  expense  and  making  the 
first  payment  on  the  land.  The  company  will,  in  most  cases, 
come  to  his  rescue  and  lend  him  the  money  he  has  paid  in,  inso- 
far as  he  puts  it  into  permanent  improvements.  Sometimes  the 
company  will  sell  him  a cow  or  assist  him  in  getting  one.  Still 
be  has  had  to  start  his  operations  with  the  very  minimum  amount 
of  working  capital.  He  has  a very  meager  supply  of  hand  tools, 
and  he  uses  no  animal  or  machine  power.  His  money  for  living 
expenses  may  be  exhausted  before  the  summer  is  well  on,  and 
he  will  be  forced  to  seek  employment  elsewhere.  The  result  is 
that  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  he  has  little  more  than  a garden 
cleared  and  expenses  are  greater  than  his  income.  Where  a 
settler  of  this  sort  is  barely  making  a living  at  his  outside 
work,  the  land  company  will  often  not  even  demand  the  interest 
payment.  Especially  is  this  the  case  where  some  effort  at  clear- 
ing is  being  made.  The  land  companies  frequently  appear  char- 
itable in  this  matter,  but  they  are  very  much  ahead  so  long  as 
they  can  persuade  the  settler  to  pay  the  taxes  for  them. 

Chances  of  success.  What  are  the  chances  of  a man  with  but 
$500  ‘‘winning  out”  under  present  conditions?  Most  of  the 
land  companies  are  frank  to  testify  that  of  those  coming  to  the 
land  with  $500  or  less,  90  per  cent  would  fail  without  the  assist- 
ance of  the  company.  Even  where  the  company  is  able  and 
willing  to  extend  all  the  support  in  keeping  with  good  business, 
the  percentage  of  failures  in  this  class  of  settlers  is  extremely 
high.  One  of  the  leading  companies  estimated  the  failures  of 
such  settlers  as  at  least  50  per  cent.  This  statement  was  also 
verified  by  house-to-house  canvass  of  what  was  taken  to  be  a 
typical  community  of  about  25  such  settlers.  Instead  of  con- 
sidering the  50  per  cent  mortality  high  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  buyer  with  no  more  than  $500  is  a serious  risk.  If  any 
colonization  company  can  get  half  of  such  settlers  through  the 
uncertain  pioneer  stage  it  has  done  society  a service. 

The  failure  of  such  settlers  is  due  in  many  cases  to  the  per- 
sonal element.  In  the  first  place,  the  settlers  do  not  make  the 
progress  they  anticipate.  In  some  instances  the  move  doubtless 
had  the  halo  of  a sort  of  excursion,  but  two  or  three  weeks  of 
hard  work  with  no  pay  and  few  visible  results,  and  under  condi- 
tions of  extreme  loneliness,  soon  convinces  the  would-be  pioneers 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin 


31 


that  they  are  not  on  a summer  outing.  This  type  of  settler  does 
not  usually  stay  through  the  first  season.  A great  many  get 
back  what  they  can  from  the  company,  while  some  go  leaving 
the  company  to  discover  that  they  are  gone.  One  of  the  most 
frequent  causes  of  discontent  and  failure  of  settlers  is  the  un- 
willingness of  the  wife  to  stand  the  loneliness  and  hardship  of 
life  on  the  frontier.  It  is  not  a question  of  blame ; it  is  a ques- 
tion of  adaptability  and  endurance.  The  woman  undoubtedly 
has  a relatively  harder  time  to  do  her  part  of  pioneering  than 
has  her  husband. 

The  great  majority  of  settlers,  on  the  other  hand,  are  hungry 
for  country  life ; they  are  anxious  to  own  a home  and  rear  their 
children  in  a country  environment.  These  families  are  willing 
to  make  every  conceivable  sacrifice  to  accomplish  their  aim.  A 
great  many  of  them  come  from  other  sections  or  states  where 
nearly  all  available  land  has  been  improved  and  land  values  are 
high.  Such  people  will  seldom  fail  if  they  are  on  guard  against 
a possible  ‘ ‘ land  shark  ’ ’ and  are  where  credit  can  be  obtained  in 
proportion  to  the  rate  of  development. 

Failure  on  the  part  of  such  settlers  does  not  come  from  a lack 
of  desire  for  success.  The  county  agents  consulted  would  in- 
variably put  the  financial  difficulties  first  in  listing  the  causes 
of  failure.  They  make  the  start  with  too  little  capital.  For 
that  reason  they  have  to  work  out  most  of  the  time  and  their 
interest  and  other  debts  accumulate  to  such  an  extent  that  they 
become  discouraged  and  quit.  Many  times  the  settler,  because 
he  has  not  enough  capital,  does  all  his  clearing  and  cultivating 
by  his  own  labor  aided  by  the  fewest  and  cheapest  tools  possible. 
This  makes  progress  so  slow  that  the  settler  finally  loses  confi- 
dence in  himself.  Those  who  try  to  start  with  a small  amount 
of  capital  are  unable  to  adopt  the  long-time  policy  of  farming 
and  so  are  frequently  driven  away  by  a poor  crop.  They  do  not 
know  how  to  make  progress  in  clearing;  they  do  not  know  the 
best  type  of  farming  for  the  country;  they  try  to  farm  as  they 
did  in  their  old  homes.  In  their  new  environment  they  do  not 
know  how  to  use  to  the  best  advantage  even  what  capital  they 
have. 

The  real  estate  dealers  say  60  per  cent  of  the  settlers  have 
less  than  $500  in  total  capital  at  the  time  of  land  purchase.  It 
would  be  conservative,  judging  from  the  statements  of  the  land 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


dealers,  to  say  that  not  over  30  per  cent  of  them  have  $1,500 
or  more,  and  are,  therefore,  able  on  their  own  account  to  adopt 
the  long-time  policy  in  their  farm  operations.  The  50  real 
estate  companies  reporting  exact  numbers  of  sales  in  1917  show 
a total  of  nearly  1,800,  and,  due  to  the  war,  it  was  an  exceedingly 
bad  year  for  obtaining  settlers.  There  is  a large  number  of 
companies  from  which  no  reports  have  been  received.  The  evi- 
dence is  sufficient  to  show,  however,  that  there  is  a large  num- 
ber of  settlers  unable  to  stand  alone  coming  into  the  state  each 
year,  and  that  a majority  of  them  will  remain  financially  depend- 
ent for  some  years. 

The  purchase  of  land  and  service.  The  charge  is  frequently 
made  that  settlers  pay  more  to  colonization  companies  for  land 
than  similar  land  would  cost  purchased  from  private  individuals. 
This  is  no  doubt  true.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
in  buying  from  the  private  party  the  buyer  gets  the  land  and 
nothing  else.  In  buying  from  a colonization  company  he  gets 
the  land  and  the  service  of  the  company.  The  latter  is  no  small 
consideration.  It  may  mean  credit  at  a time  when  no  disinter- 
ested party  is  in  a position  to  extend  credit,  and  this  may  easily 
mean  the  difference  between  success  and  failure.  The  service 
means  much  more  than  credit.  It  means  the  development  of  so- 
cial centers,  schools,  roads,  buying  and  selling  companies,  and 
all  that  goes  to  make  life  tolerable,  and  effort  profitable  in  a 
pioneer  community.  The  service  should  be  furnished  at  as  low 
a figure  as  possible,  but  it  may  easily  be  worth  as  much  as  the 
raw  land. 

The  sifting  of  settlers.  With  the  foregoing  facts  in  mind  it 
will  be  readily  seen  that  a great  number  of  settlers  is  bound 
to  fail.  The  failure  is  a less  both  to  the  settler  and  his  famTy 
and  to  the  parties  selling  the  land.  Thus  the  desirahility  of 
selecting  prospective  settlers  likely  to  succeed  and  rejecting 
those  likely  to  fail  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized.  It  is  to 
the  advantage  of  all  concerned  that  only  those  with  at  least 
fair  prospects  of  success  attempt  the  difficult  task  of  pioneer- 
ing. The  better  companies  take  great  pains  to  decide  whether 
or  not  it  is  worth  while  to  undertake  to  start  a given  man  on  a 
tract  of  their  land.  The  case  is  something  like  that  of  a life 
insurance  company.  By  selection  the  mortality  per  thousand 
is  each  year  less  than  it  would  be  with  indiscrimmate  selection. 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin 


33 


♦ 

The  general  practice  of  careful  selection  cannot  be  brought  about 
any  too  soon. 

The  sifting  of  real  estate  companies.  The  state  has  started 
on  a program  of  licensing  real  estate  companies  in  order  event- 
ually to  bring  the  business  up  to  a higher  level,  taking  out  the 
undesirable.  The  work  of  putting  this  law  into  effect  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  director  of  immigration  of  the  state  department  of 
agriculture. 

Credit  Needs  of  the  Settler  with  Little  Money 

Such  a settler  on  cut-over  land  has  to  face  about  the  same 
problems  that  the  independent  settler  has  to  face,  and  he  needs, 
therefore,  about  the  same  equipment.  If  he  is  going  to  farm 
in  the  most  economical  way  he  must  have  about  as  much  land 
as  the  other  man.  The  minimum  cost  for  buildings  is  one  that 
must  be  met  by  all.  They  need  about  the  same  clearing  machin- 
ery. Simply  because  he  is  poor  will  not  lower  to  any  appre- 
ciable extent  the  cost  of  living  for  himself  and  his  family.  In 
fact,  one  who  is  familiar  with  the  situation  knows  that  the  costs 
to  the  poor  man  are  often  higher  because  he  is  poor.  He  gets 
most  of  his  credit  at  the  store,  and  it  comes  about  twice  as  higii 
as  ordinary  bank  credit.  In  addition  he  is  handicapped  by  a 
larger  annual  interest  payment  on  his  land  contract.  The' less 
well-to-do  settler  must  have  the  minimum  supply  of  livestock 
and  other  working  capital. 

Bank  credit  for  the  settler  of  small  means.  The  problem  of 
financing  such  settlers  is  the  biggest  problem  in  the  settlement 
of  Upper  Wisconsin.  The  Federal  Land  Banks  cannot  do  it  be- 
cause they  are  able  to  lend  only  50  per  cent,  or  less,  of  the  farm 
value.  The  trust  companies  arc  os  conservative  as  the  Federal 
Land  Bank,  so  they  render  no  direct  assistance.  The  state  banks 
vary  somewhat  in  their  practice,  thei]‘  range  being  from  40  to 
75  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  real  estate,  though  80  y)cr  cent  of 
them  hold  to  the  50  pe?‘  cenit  basis.  The  land  mortgage  associa- 
tions can  lend  65  per  cent  of  the  value,  but  there  arc  now  only 
two  of  these  in  the  state.  In  fact,  the  ci-edit  of  none  of  these 
institutions  is  available  for  long-time  loans  on  i*cal  estate  be- 
cause the  great  mass  of  these  settlei-s  do  not  have  even  a deed, 
and  few  are  able  to  get  one  under  five  yeai's.  Settlers’  interest 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  318 


in  real  property,  then,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  absolutely  no  basis 
for  credit  at  any  of  the  recognized  credit  institutions. 

Short-time  credit.  The  settler  of  small  means  is  able  to  get 
a little  store  credit,  but  it  is  ^usually  granted  only  on  the  basis  of 
a chattel  mortgage  or  the  recommendation  of  a reliable  person. 
He  is  usually  compelled  to  make  all  his  purchases  at  one  store. 
He  has  to  take  what  is  offered,  and  has  to  give  the  price  asked. 
A wide  margin  of  profit  has  to  be  made  in  order  to  compensate 
for  the  losses. 

Credit  furmshed  by  the  real  estate  company.  About  the  only 
creditor  in  a position  to  protect  himself  from  losses  in  dealing 
with  this  class  of  settlers  is  the  land-owner.  Nearly  all  the  labor 
of  the  settler  is  put  into  land  improvements.  Hence,  the  land 
company  can  advance  a certain  amount  of  credit  and  still  main- 
tain a safe  margin  between  itself  and  loss.  A few  of  the  big 
land  and  colonization  companies  which  make  a practice  of  selling 
to  settlers  of  small  means  agree  to  make  them  certain  advances 
in  the  way  of  supplies  and  working  capital.  Bankers  will 
usually  lend  to  settlers  as  soon  as  they  establish  themselves  and 
show  that  they  are  worthy  of  credit.  It  cannot  be  expected  that 
they  will  lend  to  them  ahead  of  these  conditions. 

The  most  hopeful  outlook  for  relief  in  the  matter  of  personal 
credit  is  the  releasing  of  local  money  from  the  duty  of  long  time 
loans  and  its  use  for  short  time  personal  loans.  The  Federal 
Farm  Loan  Bank  is  making  loans  running  into  big  figures 
out  the  country,  but  especially  in  the  pioneer  districts  such  as 
upper  Wisconsin  Avhere  $17,000,000  has  already  been  loaned. 
Every  hundred  dollars  brought  from  money  centers  into  these 
sections  by  this  means  enables  local  money  to  be  used  for  pur- 
poses other  than  mortgage  loans.  It  is  altogether  in  accordance 
with  good  business  principles  for  money  at  a distance  to  be 
put  into  long  time  loans  and  local  money  to  go  to  the  relief  of 
the  short-time  borrower.  The  local  money  lender  is  in  a posi- 
tion to  pass  judgment  on  the  character  and  ability  of  the  bor- 
rower and  to  decide  whether  the  request  for  the  loan  is  or  is  not 
reasonable. 

Farmers  in  a new  section  frequently  need  something  more 
than  ordinary  assistance  by  way  of  credit.  No  better  means  has 
been  devised  than  the  Ashland  Dairy  Plan  mentioned.  It  might 
be  possible  to  enlarge  the  scope  of  this  plan  so  as  to  provide  for 


Credit  Needs  of  Settlers  in  Upper  Wisconsin 


35 


other  equipment  and  irnprovements.  Those  who  have  confidence 
in  the  country  and  the  settlers  are  the  ones  to  assume  the  risk 
of  advancing  credit  and  the  business  men  of  the  towns  are  in  a 
strategic  position  for  making  the  first  move.  When  once  the 
dairy  business  and  other  desirable  farm  operations  are  estab- 
lished the  rapidity  with  which  money  makes  its  way  to  the  com- 
munity is  astonishing. 

The  discussion  of  credit  needs  in  a new  country  often  takes 
the  form  of  a controversy  over  rates  of  interest.  While  the 
rate  is  important,  of  much  more  importance  is  the  availability 
of  the  principal,  that  is  to  say,  where  the  rates  are  not  out  of 
reason.  For  example,  it  is  of  vital  importance  to  a farmer  in 
upper  Wisconsin  to  be  able  to  borrow  a few  hundred  dollars 
for  the  purchase  of  seed,  or  a few  cows.  Suppose  he  wants 
$400.  The  difference  between  the  interest  at  6 per  cent  and  at 
8 per  cent  is  only  a matter  of  $8,  hardly  more  than  the  price  of  a * 
day’s  work  for  a man  and  team.  The  failure  to  get  the  use  of 
the  money  may  cost  him  several  times  that  amount. 

Under  an  efficient  system  of  regulation  the  reliable  coloniza- 
tion companies  might  well  be  given  additional  privileges  insofar 
as  they  are  used  for  the  benefit  of  the  settler. 

Any  land  policy  or  system  of  credit  that  takes  no  account  of 
the  services  of  the  land  companies  will  be  more  or  less  defective. 
Many  of  these  companies  have  spent  much  time  and  large  sums 
of  money  developing  their  particular  phase  of  the  land  business 
— the  putting  of  settlers  on  the  land.  They  have  built  up  rela- 
tionships and  avenues  of  approach  that  are  very  essential  in  any 
system  of  colonization.  The  more  progressive  companies  and 
individuals  have  gone  much  farther  than  attractive  advertising, 
and  are  making  service  their  main  feature,  rather  than  ‘‘get- 
rich-quiek”  schemes.  These  companies  realize  that  most  set- 
tlers going  in  to  develop  cut  over  land  are  seriously  handicapped 
in  various  ways,  so  they  have  inaugurated  a policy  of  service, 
probably  more  or  less  in  self-defense,  which  is  becoming  quite 
effective.  Some  employ  an  expert  adviser  for  their  settlers, 
make  special  provision  to  take  care  of  their  credit  need,  their 
market  organizations,  and  their  social  needs,  and  in  other  ways 
render  valuable  assistance.  Such  companies  deserve  the  good 
will  and  encouragement  of  the  state. 


THE  SETTLER  SHOULD  REMEMBER 


That  the  amount  of  credit  he  needs  will  depend  on; 

1.  The  amount  of  money  he  has. 

2.  The  way  he  spends  his  money. 

3.  The  amount  of  land  he  buys. 

4.  The  kind  of  land  he  buys. 

5.  His  rate  of  clearing. 

6.  The  size  and  nature  of  his  family. 


That  the  amount  of  credit  he  can  get  will  depend  on: 

1.  The  amount  of  money  he  has. 

2.  The  type  of  land  he  gets. 

3.  His  character. 

4.  His  honesty  and  ability  to  manage. 

5.  His  promptness  in  meeting  obligations. 

6.  The  number  of  children  able  and  willing  to  work. 

7.  His  type  of  farming. 

8.  His  ability  to  spend  money  wisely. 


OL 

bulletin  319 


September,  1920 


Experiments 
in  Farming 


.NNUAL  REPORT  OF  THE  DIRECTOR  OF  THE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

1918—1919 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 

MADISON 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Hemp  Culture  3 

Fiber  Flax  Grows  Well  in  Uppper  Wisconsin 8 

Sorghum  Growing  is  Resumed » 8 

Breeding  Corn  for  Upper  Wisconsin 11 

A Dent  Corn  for  Upper  Wisconsin 11 

Cold-resistant  Corn  Distributed 13 

Breeding  Sweet  Corn 15 

Oats  for  Rich  Land 16 

Winter  Ryes  Compared 16 

Winter  Safer  than  Spring  Wlieat 17 

Improvement  Work  on  Garden  and  Canning  Peas 19 

Soy  Beans,  a Staple  Crop  for  Sandy  Lands  of  Upper  Wisconsin 20 

Necessity  of  Scarifying  Legume  Seed .* 21 

Sudan  Grass  for  Forage 21 

Mixing  Timothy  and  Alfalfa 22 

Comparative  Drouth  Resistance  of  Alfalfa  and  Clover 23 

Drouth-resistant  Qualities  of  Grimm  Alfalfa 23 

Sunflowers  as  a Silage  Crop 24 

Harvesting  Soybeans  24 

Vitality  of  Soybean  Nodule  Bacteria  in  Soils 26 

Barley  Stripe  Investigations  with  Reference  to  Time  of  Planting- 23 

Overcoming  Cherry  Leaf  Spot 27 

Apple  Scab  and  Its  Control 27 

Wheat  Scab  Worse  Than  Rust 28 

A New  Bacterial  Disease  of  Soybeans 30 

Improved  Types  of  “Yellows-resistant”  Cabbage 31 

Seed  Disinfection  for  Black  Leg  and  Black  Rot 32 

Influence  of  Soil  Temperature  on  Potato  Diseases 32 

Tobacco  Diseases  Studied 33 

Development  of  Root-rot  Resistant  Tobacco 34 

Root-rot  Investigations  Increase  Value  of  Land 35 

Tobacco  Root-rot  in  Relation  to  Crop  Rotation 36 

Tobacco  Seed  Improvement 36 

Root  Hardiness  of  Seedling  Apple  Roots 37 

T N T as  a Land  Clearing  Explosive 38 

Machinery  for  Land  Drainage 39 

Tractor  Information  Gathered 39  ' 

Steel  Forms  for  Septic  Tank  Construction 40 

Making  War  Chemicals  From  Corn  Cobs 40 

Some  New  Factors  in  the  Production  of  Silage 41 

A Simpler  Metljpd  of  Milk  Examination 42 

Flavor  of  Pasteurized  Cheddar  Cheese 43 

Coagulation  of  Milk  in  Condensed  Milk 43 

The  Necessity  of  Mineral  Substances  in  Animal  Nutrition 44 

Effect  of  Lime  Added  to  Grain-straw  Rations  on  Reproduction  of  Cattle 44 

The  Relation  of  Sulphur  to  Plant  Growth 45 

Chlorine  as  Related  to  Plant  Growth 45 

Influence  of  Grain  Diet  on  Production  of  Still-born  Pigs 46 

Effect  of  Organic  Nutrients'  on  Growth  and  Reproduction 46 

Home-Grown  Rations  for  Milk  Production 47 

Leg  Weakness  in  Cbickens 48 

Lime  Requirements  for  Chickens 49 

Presence  of  Fat-Soluble  Vitamine  in  Root  Crops 49 

Is  Yellow  Corn  Better  Feed  Than  White  Corn? 50 

The  Effect  of  Heat  on  the  “Anti-scurvy”  Properties  of  Milk  Products 51 

The  Stability  of  Water-soluble  Vitamines 52 

Soybean  Oil  Experiments  Continued .7 53 

Inheritance  of  Milk  and  Meat  Production  in  Cattle 53 

Studies  of  Inheritance  in  Pigeons 54 

'T.’he  Tenancy  Problem 55 

Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 55 

Progress  of  the  Soil  Survey 56 

Uses  to  Which  Soil  Maps  Are  Put 58 

Availability  of  Rock  Phosphate  in  Relation  to  Soil  Leaching 60 

The  Function  of  Lime  in  Plants 60 

Relation  of  Soil  Acidity  to  Plant  and  Legume  Bacteria 60 

Improvements  of  Soil  Acidity  Tests 60 

Fertilizer  Needs  of  Peat  Marshes 61 

Pea  Moth  Menaces  a Leading  Wisconsin  Industry 62 

Potato  Leafhopper  Associated  with'  Tipburn 64 

Green  Clover  Worm  Affects  Beans 65 

Strawberry  Crown  Miner  Pound 65 

Studies  of  Johne's  Disease 65 

Immunization  Against  Contagious  Abortion 66 

Barley  for  Swine  Feeding 67 

Barley  Versus  Corn  for  Milk  Cows 68 

Barley  Versus  Oats  for  Work  Horses 68 

Importance  of  Barley  for  Stock  Feeding 69 

Skimmilk  and  Whey  for  Pigs 70 

Fattening  Steers  Without  Feeding  Corn  Grain 71 

Publications  72 


Experiments  in  Farming 

H.  L.  Russell  and  F.  B.  Morrison 


Foreword 

The  growth  of  plant  life  is  the  foundation  of  all  agricultural  pros- 
perity. Consequently,  the  interest  of  the  farmer  in  crops  is  always 
keen,  but  he  is  continually  forced  to  struggle  against  climatic  conditions 
that  are  often  unfavorable,  and  also  to  adapt  his  crops  to  the  character 
of  the  soil  on  which  he  lives.  These  conditions  of  nature  limit  the  crops 
he  can  grow.  He  must  therefore  bow  in  submission  and  learn  how  he 
can  ally  himself  with  Nature  so  as  to  reap  his  reward.  His  problem 
is  to  adajDt  his  seed  varieties  to  the  soil  and  climate  with  which  he  is 
in  contact  and  not  attempt  to  grow  the  crops  that  are  not  adapted  to 
his  environment.  Nature,  left  to  herself,  never  reaches  the  pinnacle  of 
ultimate  success.  It  is  just  here  that  intelligent  human  effort  is  able 
to  improve  on  natural  conditions  and  reap  a fuller  reward  for  such  ef- 
fort. 

The  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  is  supported  by  public  taxes 
for  the  purpose  of  making  such  experiments  in  agriculture  as  will 
test  out  the  varying  possibilities.  It  is  cheaper  for  the  state  to  make 
a mistake  than  it  is  for  its  several  citizens,  if  thereby  the  individual 
farmer  can  be  forewarned  so  he  will  not  repeat  the  error.  The  prog- 
ress report  of  the  station,  therefore,  gives  the  tentative  finding’s  of  the 
year  rather  tlian  await  the  finished  results  of  experiments  and  their 
final  publication.  Tlie  station  regards  it  as  its  duty  to  mirror  the  mis- 
takes, the  failui’es,  and  the  negative  results,  as  well  as  the  successful 
effoi’ts  and  positive  findings. 

Aiding  an  Infant  Industry 

No  better  example  of  the  influence  of  concerted  action  on  the  part  of 
the  Experiment  Station  in  founding  a new  agricultural  industry  is  af- 
forded than  that  which  has  been  developed  by  A.  II.  Wright  (Agronomy) 
in  connection  with  hemj)  culture  in  the  state. 

During  the  season  1917-18,  the  growing  of  hemp,  like  most  other  agri- 
cnltiD’al  industries,  suffered  considerably  fi-oni  the  emergency  of  war. 
Fonsiderable  capital  ali’eady  invested  in  heni])  mills  would  be  of  no  value 
except  for  the  )>ur})ose  of  handling  the  hemp  ci’op.  Din  ing  the  war  the 
demand  for  hemp  fiber  was  very  active,  and  at  the  signing  of  the  ai’inis- 
tice  all  users  of  hemp  fiber  had  large  government  oi’dei’s  which  wei’e 
then  cancelled,  with  the  result  that  the  market  for  hemp  fibe]-  became 
very  inactive.  Last  winter  and  spring  the  hemp  business,  therefore, 
underwent  a period  of  great  stress.  Moreover,  the  necessity  foi’  the 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


continuance  of  growing  hemp  to  meet  the  national  emergency  no  longer 
existed,  and  with  the  high  prices  for  staple  crops  and  the  guaranteed 
price  for  wheat,  the  farmers’  interest  in  hemp-growing  declined.  Fur- 
thermore, the  season  of  1918  was  relatively  unfavorable  for  hemp  cul- 
ture and  the  growers  did  not  receive  as  satisfactory  returns  on  their 
crop  as  in  previous  years.  The  results  of  these  causes  combined  to 
decrease  very  materially  the  acreage  of  hemp  planted  in  the  spring 
of  1919. 


State  Maintains  Lead  in  Hemp  Culture 

For  the  second  year,  Wisconsin  continues  to  lead  in  hemp  culture, 
having  the  largest  acreage  of  hemp  of  any  state  in  the  union.  While 


fig.  1.— one  of  the  11  hemp  mills  in  WISCONSIN 


The  fully  equipped  scutch  mill  has  made  possible  the  commercial  production  of 
hemp  in  Wisconsin.  At  these  mills  the  retted  stalks  are  dried  and  crushed,  and  the 
fiber  is  separated  from  the  wood,  cleaned,  and  baled. 


the  total  acreage  in  the  United  States  has  decreased  from  28,800  acres 
in  1918  to  15,800  in  1919,  Wisconsin  gTew  this  year  4,750  acres,  or  near- 
ly one-third  of  the  entire  acreage  in  the  United  States.  The  crop  this 
year  has  been  one  of  the  best  that  has  ever  been  produced  in  the  state. 
Sufifieient  moisture  during  the  growing  season  provided  very  satisfac- 
tory growth.  The  earlier  maturity  made  it  possible  to  harvest  the  crop 
which  was  retted  sufficiently  early  in  the  fall  to  obtain  the  benefit  of 
the  fall  rains.  At  this  writing  (November  1)  90  per  cent  of  the  hemp 
is  well  retted,  and  75  per  cent  of  it  has  already  been  shocked.  The 
quality  of  the  fiber  produced  has  never  been  better  than  this  year. 

Working  With  Grower  and  Miller 

Much  aid  has  been  given  the  grower  in  the  matter  of  improving 
methods  of  handling.  Hemp  culture  requires  personal  attention  dur- 


w 


Experiments  in  Farming  5 

ing  certain  stages.  It  needs  a better  seed  bed  than  ordinary  farm 
crops.  The  seed  should  be  planted  as  early  as  the  season  will  permit. 
It  should  be  harvested  as  soon  as  mature;  it  should  be  taken  from  the 
swaths  as  soon  as  sufficiently  retted;  and  it  should  be  stacked  as  soon 
as  dry.  Inattention  to  any  of  these  details  impairs  the  quality  of  the 
fiber. 

Aid  to  the  miller  has  been  given  in  the  matter  of  improving  milling 
methods  through  the  introduction  of  machinery  which  will  handle  more 
satisfactorily  than  heretofore  the  short,  tangled  fiber,  known  as  tow. 
Practically  one-third  of  the  total  fiber  crop  is  in  the  form  of  tow,  and 
heretofore  this  has  been  prepared  in  so  unsatisfactory  a manner  as  to 
make  it  unsalable.  The  tow  market  has  been  carefully  investigated, 
not  only  in  this  country  but  in  Europe.  A study  made  of  the  machinery 
has  resulted  in  the  installation  of  improved  tow-cleaning  machinery 
in  several  of  the  mills,  with  the  result  that  the  quality  of  the  product 
has  been  greatly  improved. 

Considerable  quantities  of  tow  have  been  exported  to  the  United 
Kingdom  with  success. 

Finding  the  Market 

It  is  one  thing  to  grow  a crop,  but  another  problem  to  market  it. 
It  is  useless  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the  farmer  in  raising  a product 
unless  he  can  be  assured  that  an  outlet  can  be  found  for  his  product. 
It  has  been  necessary  for  Mr.  Wright  to  study  the  entire  fiber  situ- 
ation throughout  the  world  in  order  to  be  in  a position  to  give  proper 
suggestions  to  our  Wisconsin  growers  and  millers  with  reference  to 
the  disposal  of  their  product. 

Just  after  the  Civil  War  American  hemp  was  used  extensively  by 
manufacturers  in  this  country,  but  in  recent  years  its  use  has  gradually 
declined,  until  only  a few  manufacturers  were  using  the  American 
raw  material  in  any  considerable  quantity.  The  primary  reason  for 
this  lies  in  the  fact  that  owing  to  careless  and  inefficient  methods,  the 
quality  of  the  product  was  not  only  poor,  l)ut  very  irregular  in  amount. 
No  definite  grades  had  been  established  and  much  of  it  was  poorly 
cleaned.  With  the  better  preparation  and  grading  of  other  fibers  of 
less  intrinsic  value,  spinners  had  gradually  come  to  use  the  substitute 
products  for  hemp.  Consequently,  the  supply  of  American  hemp  also 
became  very  erratic.  The  method  of  production  encouraged  wide  varia- 
tions in  acreage,  and  no  organization  of  the  industry  existed  which 
would  permit  of  the  use  of  a stable  acreage  each  year.  This  condition 
was  especially  found  in  Kentucky,  which  was  at  one  time  the  principal 
hemp-producing  state  in  the  union,  where  18,000  acres  were  grown  one 
year,  and  within  two  years’  time  the  acreage  had  fallen  to  1,200.  No 
manufacturer  under  these  conditions  can  afford  to  invest  the  amount 
of  capital  in  buildings,  machinery,  equipment,  and  advertising  nec- 
essary for  handling  a product  when  he  has  no  assurance  of  a stable 
supply  of  his  raw  material. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


Much  effort  was  spent  this  last  year  in  trying  to  secure  the  co- 
operation of  manufacturers  in  using  hemp  in  a regular  and  steady 
manner  and  in  establishing  grades  as  to  quality.  Much  assistance  has 
been  received  from  the  Federal  Department  of  Agriculture  with  whom 
this  work  has  been  cooperatively  undertaken,  the  Na-\y  Department 
at  Washington,  and  the  Boston  Navy  Yard.  The  chaotic  condition  of 


fig.  2— some  important  products  made  FROM  HEMP 

Hemp  is  manufactured  into  such  products  as  sewing  threads,  sacking  twines, 
wrapping  cords,  binder  twine,  and  oakum. 


affairs  in  Russia  and  other  European  countries  which  normally  pro- 
duced much  of  the  hemp  used  in  the  world,  has  resulted  in  a very  great 
shortage  of  fiber  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  on  the  Continent.  Special 
efforts  have  therefore  been  made  to  establish  an  active  market  for  our 
Wisconsin  product  in  these  sections.  During  the  last  year  over  100 
tons  of  long  fiber  and  tow  have  been  exported  to  Great  Britain. 

Cooperative  work  has  been  carried  on  with  the  United  States  Navy 
Department  which  uses  annually  from  300  to  500  tons  of  long  fiber 
hemp.  In  past  years  this  supply  has  come  entirely  from  Kentucky. 
The  Navy  specifications  for  American  hemp  have  been  so  prepared  as 


Experiments  in  Farming 


7 


to  preclude  the  possibility  of  our  AVisconsin  product  being  used.  Investi- 
gations at  Boston  have  resulted  in  trial  tests  being  made  by  the  Navy 
with  our  AA'isconsin  hemp  which  have  brought  about  a revision  of  the 
specifications  in  such  a manner  as  to  apply  to  the  Wisconsin  product. 
The  result  of  this  has  been  that  three  carloads  have  already  been 
furnished  the  Navy  Department  for  their  use. 

The  industry  here  in  this  state  is  now  getting  on  a thoroughly  well- 
established  foundation.  If  we  can  avoid  the  imposition  of  get-rich- 
quick  schemes  on  the  part  of  unscrupulous  promoters  who  have  at- 


FIG.  3.— MANUFACTURING  HEMP  PRODUCTS 

'J'hf!  raw  fiber  from  the  Wisconsin  scutch  mills  is  sold  to  larfte  American  and  European 
spinniiif,'  comi)anies  which  manufacture  the  finisliod  articles  of  commerce. 


temj)ted  to  entei'  this  business,  it  will  be  very  much  to  the  advantage  of 
the  industiy.  A number  of  these  have  seemed  a foothold  in  other 
states,  in  all  cases  resulting  in  disaster,  not  only  to  the  stockholders 
but  to  the  henij)  business  in  genei'al.  Efforts  made  to  i)romote  heni}) 
conii)anies  based  uf)on  new  and  jiatented  devices  for  separating  the 
fiber  from  the  straw  have  been  made  in  this  state,  but  so  far  they 
have  not  been  able  to  obtain  any  material  foothold. 

Hemp  Seed  Situation 

The  (jiiestion  of  seed  still  continues  to  be  a troublesome  matter.  Ilere- 
tofoie  not  much  success  has  attended  effoifs  in  lu-odncing  hemp  seed 
in  this  state  under  commercial  conditions.  Onr  season  is  too  short  to 
matui’e  seed  of  the  variety  which  we  now  grow  for  fiber,  ronse-quent ly 
we  must  depend  ui)on  other  I'egions  to  supply  the  necessaiy  seed.  The 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


growing  of  hemp  seed  is  quite  a different  business  from  the 
growing  of  the  fiber  crop,  and  with  the  high  price  of  corn,  Kentucky 
farmers  heretofore  in  the  business  of  hemp  seed  production  have  greatly 
reduced  their  acreage,  with  the  result  that  hemp  seed  was  phenomenally 
high  this  last  season.  To  protect  our  Wisconsin  mills  a complete  survey 
of  the  seed  stocks  in  the  country  has  been  made  and  contracts  have 
been  closed  with  growers  in  Missouri  which  give  assurance  that  suf- 
ficient seed  will  be  forthcoming  to  meet  the  needs  this  coming  year. 

Considerable  experimental  progress  has  been  made  in  developing  a 
strain  of  hemp  that  will  mature  seed  in  this  climate  and  still  produce 
fiber  of  a satisfactory  quality.  Tests  made  with  this  variety,  known 
as  the  Ferramington,  promise  well,  so  it  is  possible  that  Wisconsin 
growers  may  in  time  be  able  to  produce  their  own  seed. 

General  Outlook  for  Hemp  Industry 

At  present  the  market  for  long  hemp  fiber  is  very  active.  There 
is  a world  shortage  of  competing  fibers.  The  Wisconsin  fiber  is  now 
well  and  favorably  known  upon  the  world’s  markets,  and  orders  are 
being  received  in  greater  number  than  we  can  supply.  Growers  for 
this  past  season  have  received  good  returns.  The  average  yield  this 
year  for  the  whole  state,  according  to  Mr.  Wright,  is  about  1,100 
pounds  an  acre  of  total  fiber,  which  at  the  prevailing  price  of  $8.75  a 
100  pounds  to  the  grower  for  fiber  and  tow  combined  gives  him  about 
$95  to  $100  an  acre  for  his  crop.  In  general  it  costs  about  the  same  to 
grow  an  acre  of  hemp  as  it  does  to  produce  an  acre  of  corn  and  harvest 
it  in  the  form  of  silage. 

Fiber  Flax  Grows  Well  in  Upper  Wisconsin 

While  it  has  been  well  established  that  seed  flax  can  be  sucessfully 
grown  in  Wisconsin,  but  little  attention  as  yet  has  been  given  to  the 
production  of  flax  for  fiber  purposes.  Mr.  Wright  has  started  ex- 
periments in  this  direction  this  last  year  in  which  trials  with  fiber  flax 
have  been  conducted  on  practically  all  the  leading  soil  types  in  the 
state.  The  tentative  deductions  made  so  far  indicate  that  fiber  flax 
can  be  gTown  satisfactorily  in  various  portions  of  the  state  but  that  it  is 
especially  promising  in  the  northern  counties.  It  is  yet  a question, 
however,  whether  this  crop  is  of  sufficient  profit  to  warrant  encourag- 
ing the  grower  in  this  direction.  On  this  aspect  of  the  problem 
further  information  must  be  accumulated  before  any  conclusions  are 
warrantable. 


Sorghum  Growing  is  Resumed 

While  sorghum  growing  used  to  be  an  industry  of  considerable  im- 
portance in  this  state,  of  late  years  this  crop  has  fallen  into  disfavor. 
The  shortage  in  sugar  for  the  last  two  or  three  years  has,  however,  en- 
couraged a resumption  of  the  business.  The  estimated  acreage  grown 


Experiments  in  Farming 


9 


this  season  is  about  3,500  acres,  an  increase  of  1,000  acres  over  that  of 
the  previous  year.  Nearly  all  of  the  existing  sorghum  mills  are  lo- 
cated south  and  west  of  a line  drawn  from  Burnett  County  to  Racine 
County.  Efforts  have  been  made  by  Mr.  Wright  to  improve  the  seed 
and  study  improved  methods  of  manufacturing  the  syrup.  Two  strains 
of  seed  have  been  selected  and  developed  here  at  the  station  and  wide- 
ly distributed.  Over  100  growers  this  last  year  were  furnished  seed  of 
two  varieties,  Dodgeville  Amber  and  Mazo  Amber.  These  were  grown 
in  competitive  tests  wuth  practically  every  strain  of  any  importance 
that  had  been  grown  in  the  state.  The  results  confirm  the  conclusion 
of  last  year,  namely,  that  varieties  from  states  south  and  southwest 
are  not  well  suited  to  Wisconsin  conditions  because  of  their  late  maturity. 


FIG.  4.— ONLY  PURE  EARLY  AMBER  SHOULD  BE  GROWN 

There  is  now  an  ample  supply  of  carefully  selected,  pure  amber  sorghum  seed 
available  in  Wisconsin. 


Possibilities  of  Sorghum  Manufacture 

Sorghum  is  an  especially  promising  crop  for  the  sandy  soils  in  the 
central  counties  of  the  state,  as  it  witlistands  drouth  better  than  any 
other  intertilled  field  crop  which  can  be  grown.  These  soils  warm  up 
quickly  in  the  spring,  thus  permitting  of  earlier  planting  and  con- 
sequently an  earlier  maturing  of  the  crop. 

Necessity  of  Improving  Manufacturing  Methods 

It  is  possible  to  materially  enlarge  and  improve  the  sorghum  industry 
of  the  state,  but  to  accomplish  such  a result  the  methods  used  in  manu- 
facture should  be  radically  changed  in  several  parlicnlars.  Much  of 
the  crop  is  handled,  so  far  as  manufacturing  methods  are  concerned. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


in  such  a crude  and  inefficient  manner  that  less  than  a third  of  the 
total  crop  is  utilized.  The  stalks  are  stripped  of  their  leaves  largely 
by  hand,  and  the  leaves  wasted.  The  tops  or  heads  are  removed  in  the 
same  manner.  Where  crushed  in  low-power  mills,  less  than  50  per  cent 
of  the  juice  is  extracted  from  the  stalks.  Hand  labor,  which  has  for 
so  long  a time  been  used,  is  necessarily  high.  The  substitution  of  mod- 
ern equipment  in  the  manufacture  of  sorghum  syrup  would  eliminate 
much  of  the  hand  labor  now  used  in  the  fields  and  would  untilize  90  per 
cent  of  the  entire  crop.  Where  sorghum  is  grown  it  can  be  harvested 
with  a corn-binder  and  delivered  to  the  syrup  mills  just  as  corn  is  de- 
livered to  the  silage  cutters.  The  mill  removes  the  heads  and  separates 


EIG.  5.— MANY  WISCONSIN  SOEGHUM  MILLS  USE  STEAM  FOR  EVAPORATING 

The  better  equipped  mills  handle  a comparatively  large  acreage  of  sorghum  and 
considerably  reduce  the  labor  involved. 

the  leaves  from  the  stalks..  The  seed  is  run  through  a dryer  and 
threshed  and  commands  a ready  market.  Leaves  and  other  material 
can  be  run  directly  into  silos  and  when  so  handled  make  an  excellent 
quality  of  silage.  Stalks  are  crushed  in  high-powered  machines,  con- 
sisting of  a battery  of  two  or  more  grinders,  which  extract  75  per  cent 
or  more  of  the  juice,  leaving  not  to  exceed  5 per  cent  of  sugar,  approx- 
imately in  the  crushed  cane.  The  bagasse,  which  is  then  comparative!}^ 
dry,  can  be  used  for  fuel  and  furnishes  80  per  cent  of  the  amount  nec- 
essary for  fuel  purposes  in  the  syrup  factory. 

Modern  methods  of  syrup-making,  in  which  the  juices  are  filtered 
through  mechanical  pressure  filters  and  boiled  down  in  vacuum  pans, 
eliminate  much  of  the  loss  which  obtains  where  the  syrup  is  skimmed  and 
handled  in  the  old-fashioned  manner.  Factories  using  these  up-to- 
date  methods  are  successfuly  operated  in  other  sections  of  the  United 
States,  and  it  is  unquestionably  true  that  these  processes  can  be  ap- 


Experiments  in  Farming 


11 


plied  to  the  development  of  the  industry  in  this  state.  There  is  a good 
field  for  the  development  of  sorghum  in  Wisconsin,  and  efforts  are  now 
being  directed  toward  the  establishment  in  the  state  of  a factory 
equipped  with  modern  methods. 

Breeding  Corn  for  Upper  Wisconsin 

The  expansion  of  the  dairy  business  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
state  has  necessitated  continued  efforts  to  find  a type  of  corn  that  would 
be  adapted  to  forage  needs  in  this  region.  E.  J.  Delwiche  (Agronomy) 
has  now  spent  many  years  in  experimental  work  at  the  northern  branch 
stations  with  the  aim  of  improving  the  type  of  corn.  Efforts  have 
been  made  to  secure  early  maturity  of  a type  that  would  have  a suf- 
ficiently large-sized  stalk  to  be  suitable  for  silage,  and  also  a variety  that 
would  ripen  with  a certainty  each  year,  so  as  to  produce  crib  corn  where 
the  seasons  were  short  or  very  cold.  While  such  standard  varieties  as 
Wisconsin  No.  7,  No.  8,  and  No.  12  are  of  particular  value  for  silage 
purposes,  and  can  be  recommended  highly  for  many  localities  in  the 
state,  they  are  not  of  sufficiently  early  maturity  for  wide-spread  use 
in  all  sections  of  the  northem  part  of  the  state.  Wisconsin  No.  8, 
while  the  earliest  of  the  varieties  above  mentioned,  has  been  maintained 
with  considerable  difficulty  even  at  the  Spooner  station,  where  condi- 
tions are  more  favorable  than  the  average  for  the  northern  half  of 
the  state.  Because  of  low  altitude  and  highly  favoring  soil  conditions, 
it  is  possible  to  grow  this  variety  of  corn  on  the  lighter  and  warmer 
soil  type  with  greater  success  than  upon  the  heavier  types  farther  north. 

A Dent  Corn  for  Upper  Wisconsin 

Wisconsin  No.  25.  Special  efforts  have  been  directed  for  several 
years  toward  the  perfection  of  what  is  known  as  Wisconsin  No.  25,  a 
selection  from  a cross  between  Wisconsin  No.  8 and  a small,  but  very 
early  maturing  yellow  dent,*  which  possessed  many  of  the  requirements 
for  the  early,  good-sized  variety  suited  for  silage  and  crib  purposes. 
At  the  Spooner  station  this  variety  has  been  found  to  ripen  within  100 
days,  and  with  a good  stand  produces  60  to  90  bushels  of  shelled  corn 
to  an  acre.  This  variety  this  year  was  ripe  enough  to  select  seed  on 
August  23,  and  was  fully  ripe  on  August  30.  It  yielded  85  bushels  an 
acre.  It  has  now  been  tried  out  for  a sufficiently  long  period  of  time 
and  disseminated  under  widely  varying  conditions  to  warrant  its  being 
generally  used  where  dent  corns  are  to  be  cmi)loyed.  Mr.  Delwiche 
estimates  that  fully  4,000  acres  were  grown  in  the  north  this  season, 
and  in  tlie  hands  of  the  farmers  the  yields  i-anged  from  40  to  65  bushels 
and  from  8 to  15  tons  of  silage  an  acre. 

Chippewa  Flint.  For  still  earlier  maturing  varieties  suitable  to  all 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate  found  in  the  northei-n  portion  of  the  state, 

* Mr.  Delwiche  .secured  the  male  parent  .stock  u.sed  in  thi.s  cro.ss 
from  A.  J.  Roprers,  .Tr.,  of  Beulah,  Michi«an,  in  BMl.  It  had  been  .suc- 
ces.sfully  srown  in  the  cool  summer  climate  on  the  Bake  Michigan  shore. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


FIG.  6.— WISCONSIN  NO.  25  MATURES  IN  THE  NORTH 

This  pedigreed  variety  can  be  depended  npon  to  mature  under  northern  Wisconsin 
conditions.  The  ears  are  of  good  size  and  type. 


FIG.  7.— CHIPPEWA  FLINT  IS  A NEW  VARIETY 

This  northern  flint  corn  is  a very  early  type  suited  to  cool  climatic  conditions.  The 
stalk  is  lower  and  the  number  and  size  of  ears  less  than  Wisconsin  No.  25,  but  it 
matures  where  dent  corn  does  not.  The  yield  is  higher  than  that  of  most  flint  corns. 


Experiments  in  Farming 


13 


a small,  but  Avell-eared  variety  of  Hint  corn  lias  been  developed  tlirougii 
hybridizing  and  subsequent  selection.  The  parent  stocks  used  in  tliis 
breeding  work  were  two  strains  of  pure  white  flint  corn  secured  from 
the  Bad  River  Indian  Reservation  (iVshland  County)  in  northern  Wis- 
consin and  the  White  Earth  Reservation  in  northern  Minnesota,  where 
they  had  each  been  grown  for  many  years  by  the  Indians  on  these 
reservations.  This  corn  is  somewhat  low  in  height,  ranging  from  5 to 
6Y2  feet,  grows  generally  two  ears  to  the  stalk,  the  average  weight  of 
ears  being  about  two-thirds  of  that  of  Wisconsin  No.  25.  Under  good 
soil  conditions  the  yield  of  this  corn  on  the  Ashland  station  (heavy  red 
clay)  this  year  was  about  80  bushels  an  acre.  While  this  variety  is 
small  for  silage  purposes,  it  is  suitable  for  crib  corn  and  is  well  adapted 
to  be  hogged  off  because  of  the  low  height  of  the  ears.  For  the  present 
we  call  this  variety  the  Chippewa  Flint. 

Cold-resistant  Corn  Distributed 

Mention  was  made  in  last  year’s  report  of  the  work  which  B.  D. 
Leith  (Agronomy)  has  done  in  developing  a corn  which  is  more  re- 
sistant to  the  influence  of  cold  than  the  ordinary  varieties.  This  corn 
has  been  bred  from  the  Wisconsin  No.  12  or  Golden  Glow  as  a base, 
and  has  been  produced  by  selecting  ears,  the  kernels  of  which  have 
withstood  light  freezing.  The  experiments  made  at  Madison,  where 
plots  of  this  grain  were  compared  with  ordinary  types  of  corn,  indi- 
cated that  it  was  able  to  mature  from  a week  to  ten  days  earlier  than 
the  parent  varieties,  a condition  brought  about  primarily  by  the  fact 
that  this  grain  will  germinate  at  a somewhat  lower  temperature  than 
that  which  is  usually  needed  for  corn.  This  enables  the  seed  to  be 
planted  about  a week  to  ten  days  earlier  than  the  usual  corn  planting 
time. 

This  season  seed  has  been  distributed  among  farmers  along  the  Lake 
^Michigan  shore,  in  the  north  central  and  northwestern  portions  of  the 
state,  regions  where  growers  have  usually  experienced  considerable  dif- 
ficulty in  maturing  the  ordinary  Golden  Glow  strain.  Instructions  given 
to  cooperating  farmers  were  to  plant  this  corn  about  a week  earlier 
than  usual  corn-planting  time,  and  at  the  same  time  to  plant  some  of 
the  Golden  Glow  or  other  customary  variety  which  tliey  were  in  the 
habit  of  using  on  their  farms. 

The  results  of  these  field  trials  have  shown  the  superior  merits  of 
this  cold-resistant  strain.  W.  G.  Streiber  of  Elkhart  Lake,  Sheboygan 
County,  planted  14  rows  of  the  cold-resistant  type  in  the  same  field 
with  his  own  stock  of  Golden  Glow.  Observations  taken  in  July 
.showed  a better  development  of  this  plot  in  comparison  with  the  ordi- 
naiy  field  crop.  Not  only  was  it  more  luxuriant  in  growth,  but  it  was 
more  vigorous.  The  difference  between  these  two  ci’ops  was  also  con- 
firmed again  by  examination  of  the  field  on  August  2G,  the  cold- 
resi.stant  corn  being  larger,  a few  days  earlier,  the  stalks  a deep  green 
and  somewhat  heavier  in  growth. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


< ~ ■ 1- 
■.-  . '7; 


FIG.  8.— A'  COLD-RESISTAXr  CORN  DEVELOPED  FROM  MTSCOXSIX  XO.  12 

The  large,  vigorous  stalks  and  leaves,  the  early  germination  of  the  seed,  the  rapid 
growth  in  cool  weather  which  keeps  back  ordinary  Xo.  12,  are  characteristics  of  the 
new  strain  liked  by  the  fanners  who  have  grown  it. 


Experiments  in  Farming 


15 


Jacobson  Brothers  of  Green  Bay  grew  the  corn  this  year  and  their 
statement  is  that  it  was  more  vigorous  and  deeper  green  all  smiimer 
than  was  the  common  No.  12  in  the  same  field.  During  a wet,  cold 
spell  which  seemed  to  check  the  growth  of  No.  12,  this  corn  continued 
its  growth,  and  it  was  mature  on  August  26  with  large  stalks  and  ears. 
In  the  field  of  Frank  Muscovitch  of  Shawano,  the  ‘‘cold”  strain  had  a 
larger  and  more  vigorous  appearance  in  the  field  than  the  common  stock 
of  No.  12  and  showed  a more  advanced  stage  of  maturity.  W.  G. 
Burkhart  of  Pembine,  Marinette  County,  says,  “I  consider  the  corn  of 
great  merit  and  expect  to  plant  no  other  next  year.  It  was  the  best 
piece  of  corn  that  I saw  this  year,  and  I was  over  the  county  quite  a 
little.  Several  of  my  neighbors  want  seed  from  it.” 

Norman  J.  Hanson,  Sparta,  states  that  he  is  very  well  satisfied  with 
the  corn.  “In  fact,”  he  says,  “I  do  not  think  that  I could  ask  for  any 
better.” 

This  season  was,  of  course,  particularly  favorable  for  the  maturity 
of  all  corn,  but  so  far  as  results  have  been  secured  from  field  observers, 
no  unsatisfactory  report  has  been  received,  and  the  only  cases  where 
no  differences  could  be  noted  were  where  the  corn  was  planted  too  late 
to  give  it  a fair  chance  to  demonstrate  what  it  would  do  if  planted  at 
an  earlier  date. 

Breeding  Sweet  Corn 

The  rapid  expansion  of  the  canning  industry  in  this  state  has  led  the 
Agronomy  Department  to  undertake  experiments  to  see  if  it  is  not 
possible  to  improve  the  type  of  seed  used  in  sweet  .corn  cultivation. 
The  canning  industry  in  the  state  has  thus  far  been  built  up  mainly  on 
the  pea  crop,  but  it  is  possible  to  utilize  the  canneries  further  by  can- 
ning sweet  corn,  which  matures  soon  after  the  pea  crop  is  harvested. 
But  little  has  been  done  heretofore  on  the  improvement  of  seed  used 
for  this  purpose.  Varieties  have  been  crossed  to  such  an  extent  under 
field  conditions  that  it  is  hard  to  secure  definite  strains  of  corn  for 
canning  purposes. 

E.  D.  Holden  (Agronomy)  has  undertaken  experiments  in  this  direc- 
tion, working  in  conjunction  with  the  Columbus  Canning  Factory.  The 
problems  of  importance  with  reference  to  seed  of  this  type  are  early 
maturity,  high  yields,  and  good  quality  of  stock.  Results  have  been 
accumulated  on  the  number  of  ears  to  a stalk,  a factor  which  heretofore 
lias  not  been  given  much  attention.  Field  exjieriments  were  made 
where  selections  were  secured  fi’om  100  hills,  lots  in  which  each  single 
stalk  bore  one  and  two  ears  of  corn  apiece.  When  these  two  lots  of  ears 
wei-e  run  through  the  cutter  at  the  factory,  to  determine  the  percentage 
of  com  to  cob,  it  was  found  that  fully  twice  as  much  corn  was  ob- 
tained from  the  two-eared  as  from  the  single-eared  stalk.  This  gives 
a valuable  guide  to  mass  field  selection  of  seed.  It  was  noted  that 
stalks  bearing  two  ears  were  larger  and  more  vigorous  than  the  average. 
Similar  tests  made  with  sevei-al  varieties  of  sweet  corn,  including  Coun- 
try Gentleman  and  Stowell  Evergreen,  indicated  the  desirability  of 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


using  as  a base  for  future  selection  the  two-eared  type.  Seed  has  there- 
fore been  selected  in  sufficient  quantities  this  fall  (1919)  to  plant  the 
seed  fields  for  the  following  year  so  that  selections  thus  obtained  may 
be  used  to  improve  the  varieties. 

Sweet  corn  culture  is,  generally  speaking,  a side  line  in  the  agricul- 
ture of  the  “cannery”  districts,  but  inasmuch  as  the  only  portion  of  the 
crop  which  is  sold  to  the  cannery  is  the  “snapped  off”  ears  which  are 
hauled  to  the  factory,  it  is  possible  to  secure  from  one-half  to  two-thirds 
as  much  silage  an  acre  from  the  “harvested”  sweet  corn  as  is  obtained 
from  field  silage  corn.  As  no  specialized  methods  are  required  in  the 
cultivation  of  this  crop,  the  fact  that  the  roasting  ears  are  capable  of 
being  sold  at  the  spot  cash  market,  makes  sweet  corn  cultivation  ad- 
vantageous in  those  sections  where  the  product  can  be  disposed  of  at 
the  canneries. 

Oats  for  Rich  Land 

Many  of  our  soils  that  are  now  becoming  richer  through  the  develop- 
ment of  livestock,  or  river-bottom  lands  which  are  very  high  in  native 
fertility,  present  a problem  with  reference  to  the  growth  of  oats.  Wis- 
consin Pedigree  No.  1 has  always  shown  a most  excellent  performance 
with  reference  to  yield.  An  average  for  eleven  years  on  our  Madison 
station  farm  shows  a crop  of  70.9  bushels.  While  this  oat  is  more 
generally  adapted  to  the  average  Wisconsin  condition  than  any  of  the 
other  pedigree  varieties  which  the  Station  has  developed.  Pedigree 
No.  7 ( Kherson  variety)  has  been  tested  out  by  Mr.  Leith  under  the 
peculiarly  adverse  conditions  above  mentioned,  and  has  proved  its 
superiority  even  over  Pedigree  No.  1.  An  8-year  average  of  Pedigree 
No.  7 shows  a yield  of  74.4  bushels.  The  average  yield  of  the  Pedigree 
No.  1 for  these  same  8 years  was  71.8  bushels. 

Special  efforts  have  been  made  to  develop  an  early  oat,  as  such  a 
type  would  have  a decided  advantage  over  late  oats  in  this  section 
of  the  state.  While  early  maturity  may  frequently  escape  damage  froiu 
rust  and  lodging,  and  where  conditions  require  the  late  planting  of 
oats,  these  types  have  been  found  to  be  especially  valuable.  At 
present  the  early  varieties  of  oats  are  small-kemeled  and  some  of  the 
best  of  those  are  yellow  in  color.  Attempts  have  been  made  this  year 
to  cross  strains  possessing  the  desirable  quality  of  earliness  with  the 
larger-kerneled  varieties  of  late  oats.  From  over  100  crosses  and  se- 
lections, three  promising  strains  have  been  selected  and  have  been 
started  with  reference  to  their  pedigree  history.  The  two-year  average 
yields  of  these  which  we  have  secured  up  to  the  present  show  a yield 
from  46  to  51  bushels  an  acre. 

Winter  Ryes  Compared 

Of  late  much  attention  has  been  given  in  the  press  to  the  value  of 
Rosen  rye,  a Russian  type  which  has  been  introduced  especially  in 
Michigan.  This  new  variety  of  rye  has  been  grown  by  Mr.  Leith  for 


Experiments  in  Farming 


17 


the  last  two  years,  and  while  the  knowledge  collected  is  of  short  dura- 
tion compared  with  that  regarding  our  own  pedigree  varieties,  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  farmers  of  the  state  have  these  results  presented  to 
them  for  their  study.  While  Rosen  rye  made  a favorable  growth  here 
at  Madison  in  1918,  the  yield  was  low  and  quality  poor.  When  com- 
pared with  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  2,  the  following  results  were  se- 
cured : 


ROSEN  RYE  COMPARED 

Pedigree  No.  2 

Rosen  


WITH  PEDIGREE  NO.  2 

Yield  Wt.  per  Bushel 

42.1  54.0 

25.6  48.8 


These  results  certainly  do  not  indicate  that  it  would  be  desirable  on 
the  silt  loams  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state  to  substitute  the  Rosen 
strain  for  the  pedigree  varieties  that  have  so  far  proved  successful  in 
this  state. 


Winter  Safer  than  Spring  Wheat 

In  1919  spring  wheat  was  almost  a total  failure  due  to  the  effect  of 
the  black  rust.  In  general  the  season  was  unfavorable  for  high  yields 
of  small  grains.  The  hot,  dry  spell  late  in  June  hastened  the  early 
maturity  of  the  kernels  before  they  were  fully  formed.  With  the  re- 
sumption of  interest  in  the  matter  of  wheat  culture  in  the  state,  it  is 
important  to  note  the  relative  advantage  of  winter-  and  spring-sown 
grains.  The  following  data  prepared  by  Mr.  Leith  from  our  records 
show  the  average  yields  of  both  spring  and  winter  wheat  of  the  pedigree 
varieties  that  have  been  grown  in  test  plots  at  Madison. 


WINTER  WHEATS 


Yield 

(Bu.  per  acre) 

No.  of  Years 

PfifliVi'Pf*  2,  Tnrkpv  Rpfl 

35.8 

9 

Ppdierrep  14,  Tnrkev  Rpcl 

33.7 

7 

Wisconsin  66,  Kharkov  609 

30.5 

6 

Wisconsin  64,  Kharkov  208 

30.5 

5 

SPRING  WHEATS 


Wisconsin  50,  Marquis 

Wisconsin  48,  Marquis 

25.3 

21.5 

Wisconsin  49.  Prelude 

18.9 

Wis'^'onsln  60.  Bearded  Red  Fife 

17.5 

T’edigree  ,35.  B'ue  Stem 

15.8 

Wisconsin  46,  Red  Fife 

13.2 

Of  the  spring  wheat  grown,  in  spite  of  two  years  of  severe  rust  out- 
breaks, Marquis  (Wisconsin  No.  50)  produced  25.3  busliels  a year. 
But  the  general  trend  of  the  data  shows  conclusively,  that  the  yield  of 
winter  wheat  is,  on  the  whole,  much  better  than  the  spring  varieties, 
and  as  it  is  less  liable  to  a more  or  less  complete  crop  failure,  it  is  to 
be  recoiiiMiended  generally  in  place  of  spring  wheat. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


Winter  Wheat  for  the  North 

Continuation  of  the  efforts  at  the  branch  experiment  stations  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  state  also  reveals  the  fact,  according  to  Mr. 
Delwiche,  that  winter  wheat  is  a materially  better  crop,  especially  at 
Ashland,  than  spring  wheat.  Even  in  1918,  one  of  the  worst  seasons 
on  record  for  winterkilling,  the  winter  varieties  nearly  equalled  the 
spring  varieties  in  yield.  The  average  yield  for  Marquis  (spring  type) 
for  four  years  from  1916  to  1919,  inclusive,  is  14.9  bushels  an  acre, 
while  pedigree  No.  408,  Bacska  (winter  variety),  for  the  same  period 
at  Ashland  has  yielded  an  average  of  32  bushels  an  acre.  This  period 
included  a season  of  exceptional  severity  for  the  winterkilling  of  winter 
varieties,  and  the  Marquis  spring  wheat  rusted  so  completely  this  year 
that  it  produced  practically  no  grain. 

By  reason  of  the  severe  winterkilling  which  occurred  in  1917  and  a 
reduction  of  the  experimental  work  to  a minimum  because  of  war  con- 
ditions, only  17  winter  varieties  were  planted  in  the  fall  of  1918.  The 
larger  number  of  varieties  tested  were  practically  immune  from  the 
black  rust,  a matter  of  no  small  importance  in  the  growth  of  this  crop. 

The  impos'sibility  of  making  definite  and  final  recommendations  that 
are  applicable  to  large  areas  of  the  country,  is  indicated  in  the  results 
which  have  been  obtained  upon  the  red  clay  at  Superior  Demonstration 
Station  in  comparison  with  those  obtained  at  Ashland.  It  has  been  our 
experience  that  spring  wheats  have  not  been  affected  by  the  rust  at 
Superior  nearly  to  the  degree  that  they  are  in  the  Ashland  section. 
In  fact,  the  comparative  absence  of  the  rust  in  this  region  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  secure  fully  as  large  jdelds  from  spring  as  from  winter  varieties. 
Just  why  this  is  so  has  not  as  yet  been  ascertained. 

Time  of  Winter  Wheat  Seeding 

As  winter  wheat  in  an  average  Wisconsin  rotation  must  usually 
follow  silage  corn,  it  is  of  utmost  importance  to  know  how  late  a per- 
son can  safely  plant  this  crop.  Before  silage  can  be  removed  and  the 
ground  prepared  for  wheat,  it  is  often  as  late  as  the  last  Aveek  in  Sep- 
tember. Consequently,  the  farmer  is  likely  to  feel  that  this  late  period 
of  planting  makes  impossible  a successful  crop.  The  following  table 
by  Mr.  Leith  giving  the  yields  of  Avinter  wheat  when  sown  at  different 
periods  indicates  the  relation  the  yield  bears  to  the  time  of  planting. 

DATES  OF  SEEDING  WINTER  WHEAT 
(Bushels  to  an  acre) 


Seeded  From 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1919 

Average 

Aug.  20  to  26  

37.4 

37.4 

A nor  21  to  2nd  week  in  Sept  

37.6 

36.6 

37.1 

Sept.  13  to  Sept.  26 

43.0 

31.0 

45.8 

33.6 

38.4 

Sept.  26  to  Oct.  10.' 

47.3 

32.6 

36.3 

28.8 

36.3 

Oct.  11  to  Oct.  20 

28.7 

28.2 

28.5 

Experiments  in  Farming 


19 


The  data  for  1918  are  not  included  because  of  the  very  severe  winter- 
killing  which  occurred  that  year.  This  table  shows  that  the  optimum 
time  for  seeding  winter  wheat  is  around  September  20.  However, 
seedings  made  as  late  as  October  10  did  not  suffer  very  greatly  in  yield. 
Last  fall  (1919)  a small  acreage  of  winter  wheat  was  planted  in  the 
state  because  the  ground  was  too  dry  to  plow  until  nearly  the  middle 
of  September.  Then  many  farmers  gave  up  the  idea  of  winter  wheat 
planting  because  they  felt  that  they  could  not  get  the  seed  in  on  time. 
However,  planting  could  easily  have  been  completed  by  September  25 
and  after  that  period  of  time  the  wheat  would  have  made  a sufficient 
growth  before  winter  to  have  insured  a good  stand. 

Improvement  Work  on  Garden  and  Canning  Peas 


For  a number  of  years  experiments  have  been  carried  on  in  connec- 
tion with  the  northern  stations  in  the  matter  of  improving  the  varieties 


FIG.  9.— seed  from  THIS  PLOT  WENT  TO  FARMERS 


The  rJi.ssemination  of  high-yielding-,  pure  strains  of  field  and  canning  peas  grown  at 
the  Ashland  Experiment  Station,  has  greatly  advanced  pea-growing  in  Upper  Wis- 
con.«in. 


of  field  and  garden  jieas.  In  tlie  main  tliis  work  lias  lieeu  jierformed 
at  Ashland  upon  tlie  lieavy  red  clay,  and  also  on  the  lighter  soils  at 
Spooner.  Several  pedigree  varieties  have  been  developed  and  dissem- 
inated that  promise  great  improvement  for  the  future  develoimient  of 
this  industry.  An  examination  of  the  field  ]>ea  industry  in  the  state, 
shows  that  in  many  instances’  the  fanners’  seed  is  badly  mixed.  This 
can  only  be  imjiroved  by  throwijig  out  these  mixed  varieties  and  in- 
stalling in  their  stead,  good,  jiedigreed  stock.  Mi-.  Delwiche  at  Ash- 
land has  had  notable  success  with  pedigreed  Scob-h  and  jiedigreed  Green 
varieties.  Several  hundred  bushels  of  selected  stock  ol‘  these  types  have 
been  developed  which  will  be  put  ujioii  the  mai’ket  for  seed  jmrjioses 
next  year. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


Special  efforts  have  also  been  made  with  reference  to  the  improve- 
ment of  canning  varieties.  In  breeding  these  varieties  it  must  be  kept 
constantly  in  mind  that  the  main  essentials  to  be  secured  are  yield  and 
uniformity  of  ripening.  Climatic  conditions  seem  to  be  unusually  de- 
sirable for  the  growth  of  these  crops  in  northern  Wisconsin.  The  seed 
grown  has  been  disseminated  from  the  experiment  station  at  Ashland 
and  now  a large  number  of  the  farmers  are  more  or  less  familiar  with 
these  types  and  doubtless  considerable  quantities  of  seed  stock  will  soon 
be  grown  in  this  region. 

This  last  year  a canning  factory  was  built  at  Marengo.  The  cool 
climate  which  prevails  in  this  section,  the  comparative  immunity  from 


FIG.  10.— THE  NORTH  I.IKES  SOYBEANS 


Especially  on  light  soils  is  the  growing  of  soybeans  in  favor.  This  crop,  produced 
at  Ashland,  yielded  3 tons  of  hay.  Seed  yields  reported  from  the  same  place  ranged 
from  32  to  45  bushels  an  acre. 

fungous  diseases  which  atfect  this  crop,  and  the  general  favorable  con- 
ditions for  the  cultivation  of  peas,  make  it  more  than  probable  that 
this  section  will  soon  be  an  important  region  for  the  cultivation,  not 
only  of  the  field  but  of  the  canning  varieties  as  well. 

Soybeans,  a Staple  Crop  for  Sandy  Lands  of  Upper  Wisconsin 

Extensive  tests  and  breeding  work  with  soybeans  have  brought  out 
veiy  clearly  that  this  plant,  though  one  of  comparatively  new  introduc- 
tion, is  destined  to  be  grown  as  a staple  crop  on  our  sandy  land.  By 
means  of  variety  tests  and  selection  of  pure-line  strains,  varieties  have 
been  obtained  which  are  adapted  to  northern  Wisconsin  conditions. 
Abundant  crops  of  seed,  hay,  and  silage  can  be  secured  each  season. 
Yields  reported  by  the  Agronomy  Department  in  1919  ranged  from  32 
to  45  bushels  of  seed  an  acre.  With  linseed  oilmeal  selling  at  $72  a 
ton  the  possibility  of  growing  soybeans  as  a concentrated  feed  for 
cattle  looks  very  promising.  The  fact  that  soybeans  can  best  be  ma- 


Experiments  in  Farming 


21 


tured  on  sandy  lands  makes  the  crop  of  extreme  value  for  this  soil 
type.  Thousands  of  acres  of  such  soils  in  central  and  northern  Wis- 
consin can  be  made  to  produce  good  crops  of  this  valuable  plant  and 
thus  add  greatly  to  the  agricultural  wealth  of  the  state. 

Of  the  varieties  tested,  the  Pedigree  No.  1 strain  of  the  early  black 
has  given  the  best  results  as  an  average.  Seed  of  this  variety  has  been 
widely  disseminated  and  is  available  in  considerable  quantities.  It  is 
estimated  that  from  3,000  to  5,000  bushels  of  this  strain  has  been  grown 
in  1919  by  farmers  in  the  northern  and  central  sections  of  the  state. 

Necessity  op  Scarifying  Legume  Seed 

With  the  very  high  prices  prevailing  for  the  last  few  years  for  red 
clover,  sweet  clover,  and  alfalfa  seed,  the  matter  of  germination  as- 
sumes greater  importance  than  ever.  These  legumes,  if  hand-hulled, 
almost  invariably  contain  a large  percentage  of  so-called  ‘‘hard”  seed, 
which  have  such  an  impenetrable  seed  coat  as  to  exclude  moisture  to  a 
degree  that  prevents  uniform  and  rapid  germination.  With  hand-hull- 
ing, especially  with  sweet  clover  and  the  hardy  varieties  of  alfalfa,  as 
the  Grimm,  Baltic,  and  Cossack,  the  percentage  of  hard  seed  may  run  as 
high  as  95  per  cent.  Where  the  seed  is  machine-hulled,  there  is  usually 
sufficient  scratching  of  the  seed  coat  to  reduce  this  difficulty,  but  not 
sufficient  to  insure  satisfactory  and  immediate  germination.  L.  F. 
Graber  (Agronomy)  has  studied  for  several  seasons  the  results  on 
scarification  where  the  seed  has  been  treated  with  the  Ames  hulling  and 
scarifying  machine,  which  was  perfected  at  the  Iowa  State  College. 
The  seeds  are  blown  through  a tube,  bringing  them  forcibly  in  contact 
w’ith  sand  paper  so  that  the  seed  coat  is  scratched  or  much  of  it  actually 
removed.  This  permits  of  a ready  absorption  of  moisture  and  prompt 
germination  of  the  seed.  In  the  case  of  sweet  clover  the  effect  of 
scarification  was  to  increase  the  germinability  from  5 to  95  per  cent. 
Similar  results  were  obtained  with  alfalfa  seed,  although  to  a much 
less  degree.  Grimm  alfalfa,  containing  from  20  to  25  per  cent  of  hard 
seed,  was  improved  in  germination  from  15  to  17  per  cent  by  scarifica- 
tion. With  Grimm  seed  worth  60  cents  a pound,  the  value  of  scarifica- 
tion in  such  cases  amounts  to  from  $9  to  $10  a hundred  weight. 

Where  seed  is  recleaned  after  scarification,  there  is  an  average  loss  of 
about  6 per  cent  in  seed  particles,  dust  and  seed  coat  hulls. 

All  clovers  and  alfalfa  seeds  do  not  require  scarification.  Results 
obtained  at  this  station  confirm  those  of  the  Ames  station  as  to  the  de- 
sirability of  scarifying  seed  where  the  seed  contains  more  than  10  per 
cent  of  so-called  hard  seed.  Unquestionably  this  is  a matter  of  con- 
siderable importance  to  the  seed  houses,  and  as  a result  of  these  studies, 
several  large  seed  concerns  in  the  state  have  secured  scarifying  ma- 
chines, and  have  tested  their  products  in  this  manner. 

Sudan  Grass  for  Forage 

As  a result  of  four  seasons’  work,  G.  B.  Mortimer  (Agronomy) 
has  added  to  our  knowledge  with  reference  to  the  adaptability  of  Sudan 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


grass  as  a forage  crop  under  Wisconsin  conditions.  It  is  apparent  that 
this  gTass  can  be  safely  added  to  onr  list  of  forage  plants,  as  it  yields 
fairly  well,  averaging  between  three  and  four  tons  of  cured  liay  an 
acre  each  year  for  the  period  tested.  The  best  results  have  been  ob- 
tained where  the  crop  was  seeded  with  a grain  drill,  especially  where 
grown  for  hay,  althoug'h  seeding  in  cultivated  rows  gave  good  results. 
On  account  of  the  freedom  with  which  the  plant  tillers,  heavy  seedings 
are  unnecessary,  especially  on  fertile  soils.  When  broadcasted,  from 
20  to  25  pounds  of  seed  an  acre  is  sufficient.  Sudan  grass  should 
never  be  planted  before  corn  planting  time.  From  that  time  until 
June  10  gives  the  best  results. 


EIG.  11.— SOYBEANS  AND  SUDAN  GRASS  AT  THE  CUTTING  STAGE 

To  meet  the  objection  that  the  Sudan  crop  is  low  in  protein,  soybeans  are  seeded  with 
the  grass.  There  is  some  shattering,  but  the  hay  is,  on  the  whole,  very  good. 


The  chief  criticism  with  reference  to  this  crop  is  its  low  protein  con- 
tent. Mr.  Mortimer  has  made  experiments  this  last  season  on  growing 
this  crop  in  combination  with  soybeans  and  cowpeas.  Hay  made  under 
these  conditions  was  easy  to  produce,  the  loss  of  leaves  from  soybeans 
in  handling  being  very  small.  The  presence  of  Sudan  grass  helps  ma- 
terially in  this  respect.  Cowiieas,  on  the  other  hand,  proved  of  little 
value  in  this  combination,  as  the  plants  made  but  little  growth. 

Mixing  Timothy  and  Alfalfa 

One  great  disadvantage  which  alfalfa  suffers  in  Wisconsin  is  the 
danger  of  winterkilling.  Where  the  alfalfa  is  killed  out,  weeds  and 
bluegrass  are  likely  to  develop  to  take  the  place  of  the  dead  alfalfa 


Experiments  in  Farming 


23 


plants.  Mr.  Graber  has  experimented  upon  the  desirability  of  mixing 
timothy  seed  with  alfalfa  before  seeding.  In  practice,  5 pounds  of 
timothy  are  used  with  15  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed  to  an  acre.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  the  desirability  of  this  method  of  handling  the 
crop.  A four-year  old  plot  of  alfalfa  and  timothy  in  which  over 
50  per  cent  of  the  alfalfa  killed  out  the  second  winter,  has  shown  abso- 
lutely no  blue  grass  or  weed  infestation,  whereas  crops  of  straight  al- 
falfa that  were  winterkilled  have  been  badly  overrun  with  bluegrass. 
It  has  been  noted  that  the  hardier  timothy  plants  stool  out  and  thicken 
up  quickly.  Growing  upon  the  decaying  nitrogenous  material  offered 
by  the  decomposition  of  the  alfalfa  roots  produces  a very  strong  and 
luxuriant  growth.  If  the  alfalfa  is  thinned  out  by  winterkilling, 
timothy  thickens  very  markedly.  If  on  the  other  hand  the  alfalfa 
remains  a good  stand,  the  timothy  stand  continues  to  be  thin.  Where 
timothy  is  sown  with  alfalfa,  it  is  cut  very  early,  just  after  heading 
out,  at  which  stage  it  is  much  higher  in  protein  and  more  digestible 
than  later.  The  second  and  third  cuttings  will  be  a practically  pure 
alfalfa  growth,  as  the  timothy  under  normal  conditions  makes  no  ap- 
preciable growth  after  it  has  once  been  cut. 

Lyon  and  Bizzell  of  Cornell  have  found  that  the  growing  of  timothy 
with  alfalfa  and  clover  also  increased  the  protein  content  of  the  crop  to 
a considerable  degree. 

Comparative  Drouth  Resistance  of  Alfalfa  and  Clover 

Cooperative  experiments  carried  out  by  members  of  the  Alfalfa  Or- 
der with  Mr.  Graber  on  the  drouth  resistance  of  alfalfa  compared  with 
clover  indicate  that  the  alfalfa  is  decidedly  more  resistant  toward 
drouth  than  either  red  or  alsike  clover.  At  Wauwatosa  a plot  of  alsike 
clover  and  Grimm  alfalfa  showed  an  excellent  stand,  but  following  a 
severe  summer  drouth,  the  alsike  presented  a very  thin  stand  while  the 
adjacent  Grimm  made  a perfect  stand.  These  results  were  continued 
this  year,  showing  a marked  difference  in  stand  and  yield.  On  the 
Pabst  Stock  Farm  the  same  result  was  obtained  between  red  clover  and 
alsike.  This  condition  is  undoubtedly  explainable  on  the  basis  of  the 
more  widely  and  finely  branched  and  comparatively  shallower  root  sys- 
tem of  the  clovers,  compared  with  the  alfalfa  plants.  As  the  clovers 
are  more  dependent  upon  the  surface  soil  moisture  than  alfalfa,  they 
are  more  likely  to  suffer  when  placed  under  adverse  conditions. 


Drouth-resistant  Qualities  of  Grimm  Alfalfa 

The  general  claim  is  made  that  llie  types  of  liardy  alfalfa,  including 
Grimm,  Baltic,  and  Cossack  varieties,  are  more  drouth-resistant  than 
common  alfalfa.  Experiences  reported  by  members  of  the  Alfalfa  Or- 
der of  the  Experiment  Association,  howevei’,  do  not,  accoi'ding  to  Mr. 
Graber,  agree  with  this  view.  Expei-iments  made  on  the  fai-m  of  Roy 
Dibble,  Pewaukee,  where  Grimm  and  common  alfalfa  were  seeded  with 
a nurse  crop,  showed  the  quicker  revival  of  the  common  alfalfa  sti’ain 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


compared  with  the  Grimm  variety,  where  a diy  spell  had  occuiTed  which 
seriously  affected  the  growth  of  the  crop. 

H.  M.  Longiey  of  Dousman  also  compared  Grimm  and  common  vari- 
eties. With  the  advent  of  fall  rains,  the  common  revived  much  more 
quickly  from  a summer  drouth,  while  the  Grimm  failed  to  develop. 
The  possible  explanation  of  this  condition  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  hardy  varieties  have  a tendency  to  produce  a higher  percentage  of 
more  widely  branched  roots,  which  by  reason  of  their  shallow  position 
in  the  soil  may  make  it  more  susceptible  to  drouth. 

Sunflowers  as  a Silage  Crop 

In  certain  districts  of  the  West  where  corn  does  not  mature  suffic- 
iently for  silage,  smiflowers  have  recently  received  considerable  attention 
as  a silage  crop.  Especially  in  arid  or  semi-arid  districts,  encouraging 
results  have  been  obtained  with  the  crop.  Experiments  -are  being  car- 
ried on  by  Mr.  Holden  and  F.  B.  Morrison,  G.  C.  Humphrey,  and  R.  S. 
Hulce  (Animal  Husbandly)  to  determine  whether  this  crop  is  suitable 
to  Wisconsin  conditions.  A field  of  Mammoth  Russian  sunfiowers  was 
grown  at  the  Experiment  Station  Farm  at  Madison  and  smaller  areas  on 
the  branch  experiment  stations.  The  seed  was  sown  by  means  of  a 
corn  planter,  the  rows  being  spaced  at  various  distances  apart.  The 
sunfiowers  grew  from  8 to  14  feet  in  height,  with  an  averag’e  of  about 
10  feet.  Especially  at  Madison,  the  sunflowers  after  heading  out  were 
attacked  by  a serious  epidemic  of  rust.  This,  together  with  a period 
of  drouth,  caused  most  of  the  leaves  to  dry  up.  The  crop  was  cut 
for  silage  early  in  September  when  the  seeds  were  in  the  dough,  the 
yield  of  forage  ranging  from  6V2  to  26^2  tons,  depending  on  the  rate 
of  seeding.  Probably  due  to  the  fact  that  most  of  the  leaves  had  been 
killed  by  rust  and  drouth,  the  silage  was  unsatisfactory^,  and  dairy  cows 
could  not  be  induced  to  eat  it.  Furiher  trials  will  be  carried  on  next 
year  to  determine  whether  better  results  can  be  secured  if  the  crop  is 
ensiled  at  an  earlier  stage  of  maturity.  Until  more  satisfactory  results 
are  secured,  sunflowers  cannot  be  recommended  as  a substitute  for  com 
under  our  humid  conditions. 

Harvesting  Soybeans 

The  rapid  introduction  of  soybeans  as  a legume  crop  in  this  state 
requires  further  experience  with  reference  to  methods  of  harvesting. 
Comparisons  have  been  made  this  last  year  by  H.  W.  Albertz  (Agron- 
omy) using  various  methods  for  the  harvesting  of  the  crop.  The  use 
of  the  mower  with  a bunching  attachment  proved  successful,  but  the 
greatest  objection  was  that  the  frequent  handling  of  the  vines  caused 
more  or  less  loss  due  to  shattering.  The  grain-binder  can  be  success- 
fully used  if  the  beans  are  cut  just  before  the  last  leaves  drop  off. 
Trials  with  a combined  harvester  and  thresher  that  has  been  used  for 
some  years  in  the  eastern  states,  indicated  the  successful  application 
of  this  method  to  harvesting  the  crop.  This  machine  threshes  the  beans 


Experiments  in  Farming 


25 


FIG.  12.— A I.UXURT.ANT  GROWTH  OF  SUNFLOWERS 

Heavy  yields  of  sunflowers  can  bo  seeurofl  for  silage,  but  the  silage  made  the  past 
year  on  the  station  farm  was  unsatisfactory,  probably  duo  to  injury  from  rust  and 
drouth. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


from  the  vines  as  they  stand  in  the  field.  The  principal  feature  of  the 
machine  is  a chain-driven  beater  which  consists  of  a rapid  revolving 
cylinder  with  steel  or  cast-iron  teeth.  One  team  and  two  men  are  re- 
quired to  operate  the  machine.  The  second  man  stands  behind  the 
beater  to  throw  out  the  vines  which  the  beater  removes  from  the  stalks. 
To  get  the  best  results  with  this  machine,  the  plants  must  be  mature, 
the  pods  dry  and  ready  to  shatter.  While  there  is  a slight  waste  with 
this  harvester,  under  favorable  conditions  it  appears  that  the  saving 
of  time  and  labor  will  more  than  compensate  for  such  loss. 

Vitality  or  Soybean  Nodule  Bacteria  in  Soils 

Fields  once  inoculated  with  nodule-fonning  bacteria  from  soybeans  do 
not  require  reinoculation  under  ordinary  conditions.  Experiments 
carried  out  this  last  year  by  Mr.  Albertz  indicate  that  soybean  nodule 
bacteria  are  capable  of  living  under  field  conditions  for  a period  of 
17  years.  In  1902  a field  on  the  Hill  Farm  was  planted  to  soybeans 
(Early  Black).  This  season  Ito  San  variety  was  used,  the  seed  be- 
ing planted  upon  a portion  of  the  same  field  that  had  been  earlier 
occupied  with  soybeans.  An  examination  of  roots  made  during  the 
summer  showed  no  nodules  on  that  portion  of  the  field  which  had 
never  grown  soybeans,  while  all  of  the  plants  examined  on  the  other 
portion  of  the  field  had  nodules. 

A Truog  acidity  test  of  the  soil  indicated  a slight  to  a strong  acidity. 
It  is  apparent  that  the  bacteria  capable  of  producing  nodules  on  this 
legume  tolerate  soils  which  have  a medium  to  a stroi^*  acid  reaction, 
and  will  not  require  reinoculation  if  they  are  once  inoculated  in  the 
course  of  rotation. 

Barley  Stripe  Investigations  with  Reference  to  Time  of  Planting 

In  order  to  study  the  infiuence  of  air  and  soil  temperature  as  well  as 
moisture  condition  on  the  development  of  the  parasite  of  barley  stripe, 
Mr.  Holden  carried  out  plot  experiments  where  seed  used  for  planting 
was  taken  from  fields  showing  a hea^^  infection  of  barley  stripe.  The 
results  of  these  experiments  indicate  that  the  earliest  plantings  were 
most  highly  infected  and  that  the  infection  grew  less  as  lateness  of 
planting  progressed. 

Plant  Pathology  Investigations 

During  the  past  year  a number  of  important  pathological  investiga- 
tions have  been  resumed  that  had  been  subjected  to  interruption  by 
absence  of  staff  members  on  war  duties.  The  scope  of  the  work  of 
this  department  has  further  been  materially  expanded  through  the 
development  of  cooperative  relations  with  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Indus- 
try of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  particularly  with 
I’eference  to  cereal  diseases,  truck  and  forage  crops. 


Experiments  in  Farming 


27 


The  work  which  heretofore  has  been  carried  on  in  cooperation  with 
the  H.  J.  Heinz  Pickle  Company,  relative  to  the  investigation  of 
pickle  diseases,  has  been  extended  through  the  cooperation  of  the  Na- 
tional Pickle  Packers^  Association.  Also,  a cooperative  relation  has 
been  established  with  the  National  Kraut  Packers’  Association,  which 
will  have  for  its  purpose  the  object  of  increasing  the  seed  of  the  newly 
developed  strains  of  kraut  cabbage  which  are  found  resistant  to  the 
‘‘yellows.”  Eolations  with  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  in  regard  to 
the  development  of  “yellows”  resistant  strains  of  Copenhagen  market 
cabbage,  have  also  been  started. 

Overcoming  Cherry  Leaf  Spot 

The  work  of  the  last  few  years  by  Gr.  W.  Keitt  (Plant  Pathology) 
carried  on  at  Sturgeon  Bay  on  the  cherry  leaf  spot,  the  most  serious 
plant  disease  which  infests  the  cherry,  has  resulted  in  the  complete 
control  of  this  serious  trouble.  Much  of  the  disease  can  be  eliminated 
by  clean  cultural  practices  before  the  blooming  period.  Plowing  under 
the  leaves  greatly  lessens  the  amount  of  primary  infection.  Experi- 
ments made  this  season  were  on  the  comparative  merits  of  boideaux 
mixture  and  lime  sulfur  as  to  amount  of  dilution,  most  desirable  time 
of  application,  and  number  of  applications.  In  general  both  of  these 
preparations  control  the  disease  satisfactorily  and  with  approximately 
equal  efficieney.  But  slight  injury  to  the  foliage  was  noted;  however, 
in  the  ease  of  bordeaux  mixture,  where  the  strength  of  the  solution  was 
3-3-50  (3  pounds  copper  sulfate,  3 pounds  stone  lime  and  water  to  make 
50  gallons)  and  lime  sulfur  in  1-40  solution,  satisfactory  results  were  ob- 
tained. Two  applications  of  spray,  one  when  the  petals  fall  and  a 
second  about  two  weeks  later,  control  the  disease.  If,  however,  as 
was  the  case  this  last  season,  considerable  late  infection  developed  in 
badly  infested  orchards,  a third  application  should  be  made  soon  after 
the  fruit  is  harvested.  Whether  or  not  this  treatment  is  necessary  is  a 
matter  for  expert  judgment  in  the  light  of  local  conditions.  It  now 
seems  practically  certain  that  this  serious  disease  which  threatened  one 
of  our  leading  horticultural  industries  in  the  state  can  be  thoroughly 
and  effectively  (Controlled. 

Apple  Scab  and  Its  Control 

Probably  the  most  important  disease  of  a fungus  character  affecting- 
apples  is  the  apple  scab.  Mr.  Keitt  has  resumed  his  experiments 
at  Sturgeon  Bay  on  the  continuance  of  tlie  life  liistory  studies  and  con- 
trol of  this  disease.  He  lias  found  that  tlie  dischai-ge  of  the  spores 
capable  of  producing  this  disease,  occurs  almost  exclusively  during  or 
shortly  after  rainy  weather.  Spraying  experiments  liave  been  carried 
on  comparing  bordeaux  mixture  and  lime  snlfur,  in  liquid  and  dry 
form.  Bordeaux  mixture  seems  to  produce  a considei-al)le  amount  of 
russeting  of  the  fruit  and  a poo7-er  finish.  In  no  case  did  the  standard 
schedule  of  four  treatments  control  satisfactorily  badly  scabbing  vari- 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


eties.  Where  an  additional  application  was  made  as  soon  as  the  young 
blossom  buds  were  exposed  to  infection,  but  before  they  separated  in 
the  clusters,  it  was  possible  to  control  the  disease  readily  with  each  of 
the  fungicides  used/  Further  experiments  will  necessarily  have  to  be 
made  before  final  conclusions  can  be  drawn. 


FIG.  13.— SPRAYING  REDUCES  LOSS  FROM  APPLE  SCAB 

This  disease  is  so  common  that  the  value  of  the  Wisconsin  apple  crop  is  greatly 
reduced  thereby.  Rot  follows  the  scab,  particularly  in  storage. 

Rye  Ergot  Treatment  Urged 

Further  experiments  by  the  Plant  Pathology  Department  upon  the 
application  of  the  salt  brine  method  of  treating  seed  rye  for  ergot  show 
its  entire  effectiveness,  but  it  has  been  difficult  to  secure  the  introduc- 
tion of  this  mode  of  control  among  farmers  this  last  year  because  the 
loss  of  clover  seeding  for  the  last  two  years  in  certain  sections  of  the 
state,  particularly  in  Waupaca  county,  where  rye  is  so  largely  grown, 
has  made  it  almost  necessary  to  return  to  old  rye  fields  for  further 
seeding.  Manifestly  the  method  will  be  of  no  value  unless  proper  crop 
rotation  is  practiced,  as  many  of  the  ergot  bodies  drop  to  the  ground 
during  harvest,  giving  a chance  for  reinfection  if  rye  is  again  planted 
upon  the  same  field,  even  though  the  seed  itself  is  thoroughly  disin- 
fected. Work  has  been  started  in  cooperation  with  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  to  eradicate  this  disease  from  our  best 
Wisconsin  pedigree  strains. 


Wheat  Scab  Worse  Than  Rust 

A.  G.  Johnson  (Plant  Pathology)  finds  the  loss  during  the  season 
of  1919  was  greater  from  wheat  scab  than  it  was  from  the  black  stem 


Experiments  in  Farming 


29 


rust.  Scab  on  wheat  is  produced  by  a number  of  different  fungi  and 
so  far  no  satisfactory  mode  of  control  lias  been  worked  out,  on  account 
of  the  fact  that  these  fungi  develop  upon  so  many  different  kinds  of 
grains  and  refuse,  such  as  cornstalks,  stubble,  and  straw.  Experiments 
by  Mr.  Johnson  and  J.  G.  Dickson  (Plant  Pathology)  indicate,  however, 
that  two  lines  of  control  must  be  followed:  (1)  the  use  of  the  best  seed 
that  has  been  cleaned  and  treated  with  formaldehyde;  (2)  the  use  of 
such  seed  on  thoroughly  plowed  land  where  old  cornstalks  and  grain 
and  grass  stubble  have  been  entirely  covered  up.  The  edges  of  fields 
and  adjacent  waste  places  that  cannot  be  reached  with  a plow  should  be 
burned  off.  Not  only  is  there  a definite  destruction  of  the  wheat  plant 


FIG.  14.— WHEAT  SCAB  MAKES  LIGHT  GRAIN 


Wheat  scab  is  shown  on  kernels  of  Wisconsin  turkey  red  pedigree  wheat  (left); 
healthy  kernels  (right).  Fungi  causing  scab  on  the  seeds  also  attack  seedlings,  reduc- 
ing the  stand. 

through  the  ravages  of  the  blight  fungus,  but  much  indirect  loss  in 
grain  is  sustained  by  tlie  scab  on  account  of  the  fact  that  even  a mod- 
erate infection  leaves  the  grain  so  light  in  weight  that  it  will  grade  as 
Xo.  3 or  lower. 

Will  Digging  Barberry  Entirely  Eradicate  Wheat  PusTf 

For  llie  past  two  seasons  especial  efforts  have  been  made  to  combat 
(lie  black  stem  rust  through  the  eradication  of  barberry.  Under  ordi- 
nary conditions  undoubtedly  the  barberi’y  is  a very  important  means  of 
di.sserninating  tlie  lilack  stem  rust,  but  in  seasons  wliere  the  winter  is 
extraordinarily  mild,  as  was  the  case  in  1018-19,  the  indications  are 
strong  that  the  spores  of  black  stem  rust  may  winter  over  on  winter 
gi’ains  and  grasses.  Con.seipiently,  the  eiiidication  of  the  barberry 
alone  is  regai’ded  liy  the  Plant  Pathology  department  as  insufficient 
to  eliminate  entirely  this  important  i)lant  disease  troulile. 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


A New  Bacterial  Disease  of  Soybeans 

Although  the  soybean  is  a comparatively  new  plant  in  the  agricul- 
ture of  Wisconsin,  it  is  already  developing  serious  plant  maladies. 
The  most  important  of  these  heretofore  observed  is  a leaf  blight,  caused 
by  a bacterium  that  has  been  studied  by  Miss  Florence  Coerper  (Plant 


FIG.  15.— the  leaves  HAVE  BEEN  ATTACKED  BY  A BACTERIAL  DISEASE 

The  leaf  blight  caused  by  this  new  disease  has,  in  many  cases,  proved  serious. 
Efforts  are  being  made  to  find  a disease-resistant  type  of  soybean. 


Pathology).  Among  its  most  serious  characteristics  is  this,  that  it  is  a 
seed-borne  disease,  which  means  that  under  favorable  moist  conditions, 
it  is  spread  rapidly  from  the  point  of  original  infection  to  adjacent 
plants.  Efforts  are  being  made  to  study  this  from  the  standpoint  of 
seed  selection,  but  more  particularly,  it  is  hojicd  that  it  may  be  pos- 


Experiments  in  Farming 


31 


sible  to  secure  freedom  from  disease  tlirougii  the  development  of  dis- 
ease-resistant types,  or  dift'erent  varieties  may  be  found  to  possess  a 
relative  resistance  to  infection.  Cooperative  experiments  on  this  sub- 
ject between  the  Plant  Pathological  and  Genetics  departments  will  be 
continued. 


Improved  Types  of  “Yellows-resistant”  Cabbage 

The  earlier  type  of  cabbage  developed  at  this  station  by  L.  R.  Jones 
(Plant  Pathology)  which  was  found  to  be  resistant  to  the  disease 
known  as  “yellows’^  possessed  the  commercial  defect  of  departing  ma- 


FIG.  1&-THE  WISCONSIN  “ALL-SEASONS”  CABBAGE  IS  SUCCESSFUL 
Kraut  packers  like  this  tyi)c  of  head,  and  the  strain  is  resistant  to  “yellows.” 


terially  from  the  original  type  of  Hollander  cabbage.  Recent  efforts 
have  been  made  to  produce  a new  type  that  more  nearly  resembles  the 
short-stemmed  Hollander  variety  introduced  from  Denmark.  Work 
of  this  character  which  has  been  cari-ied  on  in  cooperation  with  W.  J. 
Han.sche  of  Racine,  has  finally  resulted  in  the  production  of  a new 
type  that  matures  about  two  weeks  earlier  than  the  original  resistant 
strain.  This  new  perfected  strain  meets  all  of  the  objections  made  to 
the  old  resistant  strain.  Jt  is  expected  that  the  seed  of  the  new  strain 
will  be  i)roduced  in  sufficient  (juantities  by  1921  so  that  it  can  be  com- 
mercially distributed. 

The  station  is  also  able  to  report  that  it  has  been  possible  to  develop 
a “yellows”  resistant  kraut  cabbage  for  which  there  has  been  a very 
marked  demand  in  portions  of  the  country  where  kraut  is  made  in  large 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


quantities.  This  work  has  been  carried  on  in  cooperation  with  the 
National  Kraut  Packers’  Association  and  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  in  the  Puget  Sound  region.  This  section  has  the  ad- 
vantage over  Wisconsin  of  producing  a larger  quantity  of  seed,  and  the 
seed  is  free  from  black  leg. 

Seed  Disinfection  for  Black  Leg  and  Black  Rot 

Further  experiments  upon  the  use  of  dry  heat  to  disinfect  the  spores 
of  the  black  leg  fungus  indicate  that  this  method  does  not  wholly  con- 
trol the  disease.  Where  rainy  weather  prevails,  plants  in  the  seed  bed 
are  likely  to  be  affected  by  this  fungus.  Experiments  in  pathological 
gardens  showed  that  where  hot  bed  sash  was  used  over  young  plants, 
the  dissemination  of  the  disease  could  be  practically  checked.  This 
method,  however,  is  impractical  under  commercial  conditions.  Experi- 
ments made  this  last  year  were  carried  on  in  the  Puget  Sound  section 
of  the  state  of  Washington  where  black  leg  has  not  normally  occurred, 
and  it  appears  that  the  most  feasible  mode  of  control  will  be  to  grow 
seed  under  conditions  where  this  disease  does  not  normally  occur. 

Influence  of  Soil  Temperature  on  Potato  Diseases 

For  several  years  the  Plant  Pathology  Department  has  been  carrying 
out  investigations  on  the  influence  of  soil  temperature  in  promoting 
or  retarding  the  development  of  various  fungous  or  bacterial  diseases 
of  plants.  This  last  year  studies  have  been  made  on  two  serious  potato 
diseases — the  black  scurf  caused  by  the  fungous  organism,  Rhizoctonia, 
and  the  common  potato  scab. 

Black  scurf.  B.  L.  Richards  has  studied  the  black  scurf  disease 
both  in  laboratory  and  fleld.  He  finds  injury  to  the  stem  and  root 
system  of  the  potato  much  more  important  than  tuber  injury.  Soil 
temperature  is  found  to  exert  a marked  influence  on  the  production 
of  this  disease,  which  has  been  studied  through  a range  of  tempera- 
ture from  48°  to  86°  F.  The  disease  was  found  to  develop  to  the 
greatest  extent  at  a temperature  near  64°  F.,  but  was  pronounced 
through  a range  from  68°  to  70°.  This  fact  has  a strong  bearing  on 
the  relative  importance  of  this  disease  in  the  cooler,  northern  por- 
tions of  the  state,  as  contrasted  with  the  southern  portions  of  the 
state  or  in  the  potato  sections  of  Iowa.  The  soil  temperatures  that 
obtain  in  June  have  more  influence  upon  stem  injury  than  those  of 
any  other  month. 

More  injury  was  found  in  the  Plainfield  experimental  plot  in  1918, 
when  the  soil  had  a temperature  of  66°  F.  than  in  1919,  where  the 
temperature  for  this  same  month  averaged  71°. 

Potato  scab.  Similar  experiments  have  been  carried  out  by  H.  H. 
McKinney  on  the  effects  of  temperature  upon  the  development  of 
potato  scab. 


Experiments  in  Farming 


33 


Tobacco  Diseases  Studied 

James  Johnson  (Horticulture)  working  under  a cooperative  rela- 
tionship with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  has  had 
under  investigation  the  last  year  several  diseases  of  tobacco  that  are 
of  much  importance.  A new  disease,  the  Fusarium  wilt  of  tobacco, 
has  been  found  which  so  far  as  is  now  known  is  confined  to  Maryland 
and  Ohio.  The  organism  causing  this  disease  is  apparently  a new 
species  of  Fusarium.  Marked  differences  in  the  varietal  susceptibility 


FIG.  17.— A NEW  BACTERIA!/  DISEASE  AFFECTS  WISCONSIN  TOBACCO 
PRODUCING  “RUST” 

Tobacco  is  attacked  by  numerous  diseases  in  fiekl,  curing  shed,  and  storage.  “Rust” 
in  Wisconsin  tobacco  has  been  studied  at  tlie  experiment  station  and  found  duo  to 
bacteria. 

of  the  different  strains  of  tobacco  to  this  disease  have  been  shown.  A 
new  bacterial  spot  disease,  commonly  known  in  this  state  as  the 
“iTist,”  has  been  studied.  The  characteristics  of  the  organism  produc- 
ing this  trouble  have  been  under  investigation,  and  a preliminary  de- 
scription of  the  disease  will  soon  be  announced  by  the  department. 

Not  only  do  tobacco  troubles  affect  the  growing  plant  while  in  the 
field,  but  in  the  fermentation  process  during  curing,  many  troubles  due 
to  bactei’ial  or  fungous  origin  are  likely  to  occur.  The  so-called  “must” 
of  tobacco  lias  been  studied  this  season.  The  causal  organism  produc- 
ing this  disease  has  been  traced  to  a species  of  Oospora.  The  disease  is 
of  special  importance  to  the  packers  of  tobacco,  but  it  is  also  important 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  gi’owers  as  well. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


Development  of  Root-rot  Resistant  Tobacco 

Efforts  have  been  continued  by  Mr.  Johnson  to  produce  a type  of 
tobacco  resistant  to  root-rot  that  would  be  especially  suitable  to  Wis- 
consin conditions.  Crosses  have  been  made  between  resistant  and  sus- 
ceptible varieties  which  have  shown  that  the  first  generation  is  inter- 
mediate with  reference  to  resistance.  The  second  generation  of  seed 
produced  split  up  into  the  resistant  and  susceptible  types.  It  there- 
fore appears  that  resistance  is  a quality  of  the  plant  which  is  ap- 


FIG.  18.— the  cause  OF  TOBACCO  “MUST”  HAS  BEEN  FOUND 

The  “hand”  of  leaf  tobacco  shows  a typical  case  of  “must,”  developed  during  fer- 
mentation by  the  organism  (Oospora  nicotianae)  shown  at  the  right.  The  picture 
shows  a colony  of  the  bacteria  greatly  enlarged. 

parently  dominant,  while  susceptibility  to  the  inroads  of  certain  fungus 
diseases,  such  as  root-rot,  appears  to  be  a recessive  characteristic. 
This  important  finding  makes  it  possible  to  develop  gradually  a strain 
that  will  be  resistant  to  the  root-rot  fungus,  and  thus  insure  the  growth 
of  this  crop  upon  soils  already  infested  with  this  disease  organism. 

The  practical  field  results  obtained  by  Mr.  Johnson  this  season  have 
been  excellent.  Seed  of  these  resistant  sti-aiiis  lias  been  on  trial  witli 
about  25  growers  in  tlie  state.  In  one  case  the  yield  obtained  was 


Experiments  in  Farming 


35 


double  that  of  the  ordinary,  non-resistant  strain  where  both  were  grown 
on  infested  soil.  When  it  is  realized  that  many  of  the  tobacco  soils  in 
this  state  are  already  infested  with  the  root-rot  fungus,  it  is  ap- 
parent that  the  substitution  of  a resistant  type  of  seed  which  will  be 
able  to  develop  upon  these  tobacco-sick  soils,  will  be  the  salvation  of 
our  tobacco  industry,  inasmuch  as  it  will  greatly  diminish  the  losses 
which  heretofore  have  occurred  from  the  ravages  of  this  commonly 
distributed  parasite. 

The  call  for  this  resistant  seed  has  been  very  heavy  this  season.  Mr. 
Johnson  estimates  that  fully  2,000  acres  of  this  new  type  will  be  planted 
next  spring. 


FIG.  19.— field  experiments  RESULT  IN  A ROOT-ROT  RESISTANT 

TOBACCO 


The  first  generation  (center  row)  of  a cross  between  a susceptible  variety  (left)  and 
a resistant  variety  (right)  is  intermediate  in  resistance  to  root  rot.  The  second  gen- 
eration splits  up  into  types  which  have  various  degrees  of  resistance. 

Root-Rot  Investigations  Increase  Value  of  Land 

One  of  the  most  common  agricultural  ideas  existing  is  that  tobacco 
culture  is  ‘‘hard  on  the  soil”  in  the  sense  that  such  large  amounts  of 
plant  food  are  removed  that  poor  yields  rapidly  result  in  the  con- 
tinuous culture  of  this  crop.  The  tobacco  growers  themselves  believed 
this,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  their  best  crops  of  corn  were  produced 
on  their  old  “worn-out”  tobacco-fields.  The  salable  value  of  theii’ 
land  was  reduced  by  a poor  crop  of  toliacco,  since  this  was  regarded 
as  the  liest  indication  of  deci-eased  soil  feitilily.  Since  tlie  Kxpei'iment 
Station  has  shown  that  a large  part  of  the  “worn-out”  oi-  “run-out” 
tobacco  soils  ai-e  not  i-ednced  in  value  foi'  the  culture  ol’  ci'ops  othci- 
than  tobacco,  and  that  the  I’eason  tobacco  has  given  ])ooi-  yields  is  due 
to  a root-i-ot  disease,  which  can  lie  paiTly  overcome  by  using  resistant 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


strains,  many  Wisconsin  farmers  say  the  value  of  their  land  has  gone 
up  greatly  in  their  own  estimation  as  well  as  in  the  mind  of  prospective 
buyers.  Tobacco  crops  are  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as  a measure  of 
land  values  unless  all  circumstances  are  known.  The  indirect  value  of 
the  investigations  on  root-rots  of  tobacco  and  other  crops  is  thus  very 
greatly  enhanced.  ' I 

Tobacco  Root-Rot  in  Relation  to  Crop  Rotation 

It  has  now  been  thoroughly  established  that  the  root-rot  fungus  of 
tobacco  (Thielavia)  is  capable  of  development  not  only  upon  the  to- 
bacco plant,  but  on  many  of  the  leguminous  crops  that  might  be  used 
in  connection  with  crop  rotation  processes.  It  is,  therefore,  very  im- 
portant to  know  what  influence  these  various  legumes  may  have  with 
reference  to  the  persistence  of  the  root-rot  fungus  in  the  soil.  The 
fundamental  principle  with  reference  to  crop  rotation  is  not  only  to 
choose  plants  that  draw  on  different  chemical  constituents  of  the  soil,  but 
to  prevent  the  development  of  plant  diseases  which  may  affect  any 
particular  host. 

Trials  during  the  last  year  by  Mr.  Johnson  have  shown  that  to- 
bacco can  be  safely  grown  in  conjunction  with  clover  or  alfalfa  in 
crop  rotations,  so  far  as  infection  from  root-rot  is  concerned,  but 
preferably  tobacco  should  not  follow  cow^peas.  As  to  the  length, 
of  time  the  root-rot  fungus  will  persist  in  a soil  in  the  absence  of  host 
plants,  experiments  thus  far  tend  to  show  that  the  amount  of  root-rot 
gradually  decreases,  although  deflnite  and  flnal  data  as  to  the  exact 
length  of  time  has  not  as  yet  been  obtained. 

Tobacco  Seed  Improvement 

The  Horticultural  Department  has  distributed  during  the  last  four 
or  five  years  a considerable  quantity  of  an  improved  strain  of  tobacco, 
known  as  Connecticut  Havana  No.  38.  This  strain  has  been  received 
exceptionally  well  by  the  growers,  and  if  is  estimated  that  12,000  to 
15,000  acres  of  this  type  will  be  grown  in  the  state  during  the  1920 
season.  The  advantage  of  the  Connecticut  Havana  No.  38  over  the 
ordinary  Havana  seed  lies  especially  in  the  fact  that  it  possesses  on  the 
average  about  two  more  leaves  to  a plant,  the  yield  being  thus  in- 
creased by  7 to  10  per  cent.  The  quality,  habit  of  gTOwth  and  shape 
of  leaf  are  regarded  by  growers  and  packers  alike  as  being  excellent. 
One  precaution  is  important,  however.  The  Station  has  conclusively 
shown  that  a large  part  of  the  poor  yields  of  tobacco  in  this  state  is 
due  to  the  root-rot  disease,  and  poor  yield  also  means  reduced  value 
in  quality.  Connecticut  Havana  No.  38,  in  common  with  the  other 
Havana  seed  types,  will  give  poor  yields  on  root-rot  infested  soils; 
therefore  it  should  not  be  planted  on  old  tobacco  soils  or  so-called 
^^Tobacco-sick”  soils.  The  Experiment  Station  lias  developed  a root- 
rot  resistant  strain  which  will  give  better  yield  and  quality  than  the 


Experiments  in  Farming 


37 


Connecticut  Havana  No.  38  for  such  soils,  but  which  will  not  be  su- 
perior to  it  on  “healthy”  soil. 

The  Connecticut-Havana  No. 

38  strain  is  unique  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  result  of  the  experi- 
mental combination  of  the  desir- 
able characters  of  two  other 
strains  neither  of  which  in  them- 
selves would  have  been  success- 
ful commercially.  Practically  all 
commercial  strains  of  tobacco 
grown  are  the  result  of  acci- 
dental, not  experimental,  discov- 
ery followed  by  simple  selection. 

Root  Hardiness  of  Seedling 
Apple  Roots 


FIG.  20.— CONNECTICUT-HAVANA  NO.  38 
OUTYIELDS  STANDARD  TYPES 

The  most  prolific  cross  cut  yet  developed 
at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  is  the 
Connecticut-Havana  No.  38,  It  is  suited 
only  to  non-diseased  soils,  as  it  will  not 
withstand  root-rot  disease.  This  is  a typi- 
cal plant  of  the  new  strain. 


Fruit  growers  have  long  held 
that  an  extended  freeze  was  more 
injurious  than  a short  one  of 
even  slightly  greater  severity. 

G.  F.  Potter  (Horticulture)  has 
continued  his  studies  on  the  root 
hardiness  of  orchard  trees  this 
last  year,  giving  especial  atten- 
tion to  the  effect  of  the  rapidity 
of  freezing  and  the  duration  of 
the  minimum  temperature.  His 
results  bear  out  this  supposition 
for  in  no  case  was  there  any  in- 
dication that  a rapid  freeze  was 

more  injurious  than  a slow  one.  In  the  freezing  of  roots,  the  minimum 
temperature  reached  is  apparently  tlie  most  important  factor.  The 
moisture  content  of  the  soil  and  consecjuently  that  of  the  plant  tissues 
is  a factor  of  considerable  importance  in  the  injui-y  resulting  from  low 
temperatures.  Roots  planted  out-of-doors  in  jiots  containing  soil  of 
vaiying  degrees  of  moisture  suffered  mo.st  injury  in  diy  soil. 

Efforts  this  year  have  been  made  to  locate  the  exact  point  of  injury, 
and  the  influence  of  different  types  of  injury  on  the  growth  of  frozen 
seedlings.  Over  2,000  apjile  seedlings  were  subjected  to  freezing  tests  in 
the  laboratory  and  then  immediately  ])lanted  in  the  greenhouse.  The 
results  of  this  work  indicate  that  the  initial  injury  to  the  roots  appears 
in  the  immature  cells  of  the  xylem  just  within  the  cambium  or  grow- 
ing layer.  When  the  roots  are  somewhat  moi-e  seriously  affected,  brown- 
ing of  this  tissue  and  also  ol  the  immature  ])hloem  cells  is  visible.  The 
cambium  or  growing  layer  appears  to  be  somewhat  more  hardy  than 
either  the  inner  or  the  outer  tissues,  as  it  is  frequently  found  sur- 
rounded on  both  sides  by  injured  tissue.  On  the  other  hand,  injury 
to  the  cambium  never  occurs  unless  injury  to  these  other  tissues  is 


38 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


also  present.  It  was  noted  that  check  or  control  roots  not  frozen, 
frequently  made  less  growth  than  those  which  were  frozen  but  not 
injured.  This  curious  condition  is  undoubtedly  explained  by  the  fact 
that  with  the  controls  the  roots  were  still  under  the  influence  of  the  cus- 
tomary rest  period.  Freezing,  however,  is  a recognized  method  of 
breaking  the  rest  period  and  thus  stimulating  growth. 

T N T AS  A Land  Clearing  Explosive 

The  armistice  found  the  War  Department  of  the  United  States  in 
possession  of  large  quantities  of  a high  explosive  known  as  T N T 
(tri-nitro  toluol).  This  high ' explosive  material  was  used  in  the 
war  in  depth  bombs,  hand  grenades,  and  mines  and  other  demolition 
Avork.  John  Swenehart  (Agricultural  Engineering)  has  studied  the 
use  of  this  explosive  as  a land  clearing  blasting  powder.  Material 
received  through  the  courtesy  of  the  United  States  Government,  upon 
action  by  Congressman  A.  P.  Nelson,  was  in  an  uncartridged,  bulk 
condition.  A cartridging  plant  was  established  near  Bayfield  where 
this  material  was  put  into  a form  similar  to  that  in  which  dynamite 
is  ordinarily  used.  A comparison  with  dynamite  indicates  that  de- 
tonation requires  the  use  of  a No.  8 rather  than  a No.  6 cap.  TNT 
is  not  detonated  by  bullet  shock  from  a high-power  rifle.  Sensitive- 
ness tests  applied  to  it  indicates  that  detonation  did  not  occur  where 
portions  of  powder  were  within  6 inches  of  each  other.  The  sub- 
stance was  found  to  be  resistant  to  such  moisture  as  occurs  under 
ordinary  conditions  found  in  land  clearing.  Cartridges  of  T N T 
immersed  in  water  for  48  hours  were  found  not  to  be  affected.  Where 
raw  material  was  mixed  with  varying  percentages  of  moisture,  deto- 
nation occurred  when  5 per  cent  of  water  was  used,  but  incomplete 
or  no  detonation  occurred  with  10  and  15  per  cent  of  moisture.  One 
of  the  effects  of  dynamite  is  that  at  ordinary  low  temperatures  such 
as  those  which  obtain  under  fall  or  early  winter  conditions,  dynamite 
freezes,  and  the  thawing  out  of  this  material  is  a source  of  danger. 
Cartridges  of  T N T which  had  been  placed  in  ice  compartments 
having  a temperature  of  39  degrees  F.  were  found  to  detonate  with 
entire  success.  Field  work  in  which  this  material  was  compared  with 
20  per  cent  ammonium  dynamite,  where  stumps,  rocks  and  ditch- 
work  were  employed  for  the  test,  was  entirely  successful.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  about  three-quarters  as  much  T N T is  needed 
as  would  be  used  if  dynamite  were  employed.  Where  large  charges 
are  used,  a higher  shattering  effect  is  obtained,  but  where  small  charges 
are  employed  such  as  would  ordinarily  be  used  in  stump  removal,  T N 
T is  found  to  be  a good  substitute  for  the  ordinary  dynamite  hitherto 
employed.  The  physiological  effect  produced  upon  men  working  and 
handling  T N T in  the  process  of  cartridging  indicates  that  a small 
percentage,  about  one-sixth  of  the  operatives,  Avere  affected  to  such 
an  extent  that  it  would  be  inadvisable  to  haA^'e  them  AAmrk  in  the  raAv 
material.  This  condition  was  shoAvn  by  a rapid  increase  in  the  blood 
pressure.  In  the  large  majority  of  instances,  hoAvever,  persons  so 


Experiments  in  Farming 


39 


aifected  were  only  temporarily  disturbed.  Further  studies  are  now 
in  progress  to  determine  the  effect  of  chronic  poisoning  due  to  pro- 
longed exposure  of  the  skin  to  the  action  of  T NT. 

Generally  speaking,  the  results  were  highly  satisfactory  with  ref- 
erence to  the  use  of  this  salvaged  war  explosive.  This  experimental 
work  is  of  much  value  to  the  Government  in  assisting  in  the  formula- 
tion of  a policy  as  to  what  is  to  be  done  with  the  large  quantity  of 
T N T that  is  now  in  the  hands  of  the  government.  Prior  to  the  be- 
ginning of  these  experiments  some  of  this  material  had  been  dumped 
in  the  ocean  in  order  to  get  rid  of  it  on  account  of  the  supposed  high- 
ly toxic  character  of  the  material  and  its  inapplicability  to  ordinary 
peace  time  use. 

Machinery  for  Land  Drainage 

Ditch  cleaning  machine.  When  the  drainage  of  marshes  is  perform- 
ed by  means  of  open  ditches,  frost  action  and  accumulation  of  debris 
causes  more  or  less  difficulty  in  the  cutting  of  such  ditches.  E.  R. 
Jones  (Agricultural  Engineering)  has  devised  a machine  consisting  of 
buckets  moving  on  a carrier  and  propelled  by  a one  and  one-half 
horse  power  gasoline  engine.  The  machinery  is  mounted  on  a narrow 
flat-boat  that  floats.  The  man  standing  on  the  boat  Alls  the  buckets 
with  a hoe  and  the  debris  is  elevated  by  means  of  the  gasoline  power 
and  thrown  out  on  the  sides.  Wisconsin  has  hundreds  of  miles  of 
such  ditches  that  need  cleaning  at  intervals.  This  machine  will  be  lent 
to  drainage  districts  upon  application  to  the  Agricultural  Engineering 
Department. 

The  mole  plow.  During  the  war  a mole  plow  that  would  make 
holes  through  tight  clay  sub-soils  for  cheap,  quick  under-draniage 
to  aid  in  saving  crops  was  developed  by  Mr.  Jones.  Further  im- 
provements have  been  made  in  this  machine  so  that  it  is  now  pulled 
by  a capstan  and  has  an  efficient  device  for  controlling  depth.  Holes 
can  be  made  by  this  plow  fully  18  inches  deep  in  clay  soil.  Those 
made  in  1917  are  still  found  to  be  open  and  carrying  water.  Such 
a device  is,  of  course,  purely  of  an  emergency  character  and  should 
not  take  the  place  of  the  use  of  permanent  and  durable  drain  tile. 
This  type  of  plow,  however,  is  available  for  emergency  use  and  will 
be  lent  to  farmers  on  application. 

Plowing  marsh  lands.  Comparisons  have  been  made  by  F.  W.  Duf-  ‘ 
fee  (Agricultural  Engineering)  of  plows  of  different  styles  and  widths 
for  breaking  marsh  sod.  Thus  far  the  24  inch  brush  breaker  with  a 
long  mold  board,  is  found  to  turn  the  best  furrow.  Narrower  plows 
are  apt  to  turn  the  furrow  slice  merely  on  edge.  Anything  short  of  a 
complete  inversion  of  the  furrow  slice  permits  the  grass  to  grow  be- 
tween the  furrows  to  an  extent  which  interferes  very  much  with  the 
proper  development  of  cultivated  crops. 

Tractor  Information  Gathered 

The  rapid  introduction  of  the  tractor  as  a [)iece  of  farm  machineiy 
has  made  it  desirable  to  accumulate  information  as  to  the  value  which 


40 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


these  machines  are  to  farmers  farming  under  our  Wisconsin  condi- 
tions. From  a questionaire  sent  out  by  E.  C.  Sauve  (Agricultural  En- 
gineering) and  answered  by  106  tractor  owners  it  was  found  that  all  but 
15  were  well  satisfied  with  their  tractors.  It  is  a matter  of  importance 
to  know  the  smallest  size  farm  a tractor  will  operate  properly.  Of  the 
90  farmers  answering  this  question  a large  number  of  owners  believed 
the  tractor  profitable  on  a farm  as  small  as  80  acres.  Efforts  were  also 
made  to  determine  what  infiuence  the  use  of  a tractor  had  had  upon  the 
number  of  horses  on  the  farm.  The  use  of  527  horses  before  the  pur- 
chase of  a tractor  was  reported  by  78  owners  with  388  on  the  farm  after 
the  purchase.  The  average  for  each  tractor  owner  before  purchase 
was  about  7 horses  per  farm,  after  purchase,  about  5.  This  represents, 
therefore,  a displacement  of  about  2 horses  to  a farm.  Of  tlie  106 
owners  farming  with  tractors,  18.4  acres  more  on  the  average  were 
cultivated  after  purchasing  a tractor. 

Steel  Forms  for  Septic  Tank  Construction 

The  Agricultural  Engineering  Department  has  constructed  a collap- 
sible steel  form  for  use  in  concrete  septic  tanks.  The  use  of  this  form 
will  eliminate  much  of  the  waste  of  lumber  heretofore  used  in  the 
construction  of  wooden  forms.  This  form  is  now  available  for  lend- 
ing to  farmers  until  contractors  can  provide  it. 

Effects  of  Ultra-violet  Light  on  the  Tubercle  Bacillus 

It  is  generally  recognized  that  immunity  against  tuberculosis  may 
be  produced  by  the  injection  of  livmg  tubercle  bacilli,  but  such  a 
method  put  into  general  practice  would  be  regarded  as  unsafe,  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  Ihing  organisms  are  introduced.  However, 
if  it  were  possible  to  kill  the  bacteria  without  destroying  the  cell 
by-products,  it  would  seem  that  an  efficient  yet  safe  vaccine  might 
be  made.  W.  D.  Frost  (Agricultural  Bacteriology)  during  this  last 
year  has  undertaken  work  upon  this  project  by  exposing  the  tubercle 
bacillus  to  the  influence  of  ultra-violet  light.  The  main  difficulty  to 
overcome  in  this  connection  was  to  break  up  the  groups  of  bacteria 
which  prevent  the  light  from  acting  upon  all  of  the  germs.  Miss  Ode- 
gard,  working  under  Mr.  Frost,  has  been  able  to  prepare  a suspension 
which  can  be  successfully  used  with  ultra-violet  light.  It  is  found  that 
these  germs  are  destroyed  without  apparently  influencing  the  enzymes 
or  cellular  by-products  of  the  organisms. 

Making  War  Chemicals  From  Corn  Cobs 

In  the  summer  of  1918  the  United  States  Aircraft  Production  Board 
requested  this  college  to  investigate  the  possibility  of  securing  acetic 
acid  by  the  fermentation  of  xylose.  At  that  time  the  airplane  service 
was  urgently  in  need  of  acetone,  a solvent  used  in  the  making  of  air- 
planes and  it  was  thought  that  this  might  be  made  by  the  fermentation 
of  a sugar  known  as  xylose.  At  the  time  that  this  problem  was  sug- 
gested, the  United  States  Bureau  of  Chemistiy  had  succeeded  in  pro- 
ducing xylose  from  an  abundant  waste  product,  namely,  corn  cobs. 


Experiments  in  Farming 


41 


The  problem  then  was  to  hud  organisms  which  would  ferment  this 
material  with  the  production  of  acetic  acid.  A large  number  of  or- 
ganisms W’ere  isolated  and  studied  by  W.  H.  Peterson  (Agricultural 
Chemistry)  and  E.  B.  Fred  and  Miss  Audrey  Davenport  (Agricultural 
Bacteriology).  Several  strains  were  isolated  in  pure  culture  and  a 
number  of  them  found  able  to  split  xylose  and  arabinose  into  acetic  and 
lactic  acids.  Fully  90  per  cent  of  the  xylose  could  be  converted  into 
these  two  products,  in  a relatively  short  period  of  time. 

In  numerous  trials  under  varying  conditions  of  temperature  and 
strength  of  acid,  it  was  found  that  from  30  to  40  per  cent  of  crude 
xylose  sugar  could  be  obtained  from  corn  cobs  treated  with  2 per  cent 
sulphuric  acid,  when  heated  under  15  pounds  pressure  for  two  hours. 
This  acid  solution,  upon  being  neutralized  and  filtered,  gave  a syrup 
which  was  readily  fermented  by  the  pentose  sngar-fermenting  organisms, 
as  was  the  purified  crystaline  xylose.  A patent  has  been  taken  out 
on  this  process  by  Messrs.  Fred  and  Peterson  for  the  benefit  of  tlie 
public.  At  the  war  prices  of  acetic  and  lactic  acids,  the  amount  of 
these  acids  that  can  be  secured  from  a ton  of  corn-cobs  is  worth  about 
$150.  The  armistice  brought  this  war  investigation  to  a close,  but  out 
of  it  has  come  not  only  the  practical  fact  that  acetic  and  lactic  acids 
can  be  made  from  this  waste  material,  but  a considerable  number  of 
exceedingly  interesting  scientific  problems  have  developed. 

It  has  been  found  that  these  bacteria  have  a wide  range  of  activity, 
that  they  are  capable  of  fermenting  not  only  such  pentose  sugars  as 
xylose  and  arabinose  but  that  other  sugars  (the  hexose  and  di-sac- 
charides) are  also  readily  fermented  to  a less  degree  and  that  the 
polysaccharides  (complex  bodies)  like  starches,  cellulose,  etc.)  are 
but  slowly  attacked.  Acting  upon  fructose  in  addition  to  the  acid 
end  products,  previously  described  as  being  produced,  mannitol  has 
also  been  found,  to  an  amount  of  about  35  per  cent  of  the  total  fruc- 
tose used.  These  intermediate  products  are  capable  of  being  studied 
and  estimated  quite  as  well  as  the  acid  end  products.  The  curious 
occurrence  is  noted  that  mannitol  isolated  from  the  fermented  fructose 
can  subsequently  be  fermented  by  the  same  organisms  which  originally 
produced  the  mannitol,  and  in  time  yield  as  end  products,  acetic  and 
lactic  acids. 

Tlie  importance  of  this  problem  from  a purely  scientific  point  has 
led  to  the  development  of  a project  upon  the  pure  science  research 
fund  of  the  University,  as  this  problem  was  outside  of  the  sphere  of 
activity  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

SoiiE  New  Factors  in  the  Production  of  Silage 

A study  of  the  factors  concerned  in  the  formation  of  silage  has 
engaged  the  attention  of  the  Agricultural  Bacteriology  Department 
during  this  last  year.  It  has  long  been  known  as  a result  of  the  woi-k 
earlier  done  at  this  station  that  the  oxygen  iiresent  in  ensiled  material 
is  used  up  by  the  respiring  plant  tissues  wliich  make  up  the  silage  and 
the  action  of  baclei-ial  activity  going  on  in  tliis  mass.  The  pi-esence 


42 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


of  lactic  acid  has  readily  been  traced  to  the  developuieut  of  lactic 
acid-forming  organisms  and  has  been  noted  by  a considerable  number 
of  investigators.  The  production  of  alcohol  and  acetic  acid  which 
are  naturally  found  in  silage,  has,  however,  not  been  heretofore  sat- 
isfactorily acomited  for.  The  work  done  this  last  year  by  E.  G.  Hast- 
ings (Agricultural  Bacteriology)  indicates  that  the  first  organism  which 
appears  in  considerable  numbers  in  silage  is  one  of  the  colon  group. 
This  produces  a very  considerable  amount  of  carbon  dioxide,  small 
amounts  of  acids,  and  from  .6  to  .7  per  cent  of  alcohol.  The  growth  of 
this  organism  is  sufficient  to  explain  the  alcohol  content  of  silage.  Pre- 
vious investigators  have  ascribed  the  presence  of  acetic  acid  to  the  pro- 
duction of  the  ordinary  acetic  acid  bacteria,  but  it  is  at  once  evident 
that  these  organisms  cannot  grow  in  silage  if  oxygen  is  not  present. 

To  trace  the  role  of  bacteria  definitely,  attempts  were  made  to  grow 
plants  under  entirely  sterile  conditions.  Peas  were  grown  in  large 
test  tubes  and  after  maximum  growth  had  been  attained  were  trans- 
ferred to  smaller  containers  which  were  immediately  sealed.  A 
considerable  number  of  successful  experiments  were  obtained  in  this 
way.  In  these  none  of  them  showed  an}"  signs  of  acid  production. 
The  tissue  gradually  disintegrated,  due  undoubtedly  to  the  changes  which 
take  place  in  the  character  of  the  tissue  itself,  and  the  oxygen  in  the 
tubes  was  completely  used  up,  but  no  acid  was  produced,  as  is  true 
when  the  same  sort  of  tissue  grown  under  normal  conditions  is  treated 
in  a similar  way.  These  experiments  seem  to  indicate  that  the  action 
of  bacteria  is  essential  in  the  changes  that  take  place  in  silage. 

A Simpler  Method  of  Milk  Examination 

The  customary  laboratory  method  of  examining  milk  by  making  bac- 
terial counts  to  determine  the  number  of  organisms  involves  an  ex- 
penditure of  so  much  time  that  any  simplification  of  this  process 
would  be  highly  desirable.  Some  years  ago  the  so-called  methylene 
blue  reduction  test  was  proposed  as  a means  of  determining  the  amount 
of  bacterial  activity  in  milk.  This  test  consists  of  adding  to  the  milk 
a minute  quantity  of  methylene  blue.  The  rapidity  with  which  the 
color  disappears  is  dependent  on  the  bacterial  content  of  the  milk. 
This  makes  it  possible  by  a simple  ocular  test  to  ascertain  the  condi- 
tion of  milk.  Since  the  introduction  of  this  test  in  this  country  it 
has  not  made  much  headway  because  laboratory  workers  have  not 
been  convinced  of  its  accuracy. 

The  Agricultural  Bacteriology  department  has  during  the  last 
summer  made  a considerable  number  of  tests  upon  milk  of  known 
bacterial  content,  and  the  results  of  this  work  seem  to  indicate  that 
the  methylene  blue  test  as  a measure  of  the  bacterial  activity  of  the 
milk  is  a more  accurate  method  than  any  of  the  others  now  in  use.  This 
work  will  be  continued  with  the  idea  of  correlating  the  results  obtained 
with  this  test  with  the  keeping  quality  of  the  milk,  and  with  the  num- 
ber of  bacteria  as  determined  by  tb<».  direct  microscopic  examination. 


Experiments  in  Farming 


43 


If  further  trials  with  this  method  prove  conclusive,  as  now  seems 
probable,  it  will  greatly  reduce  the  amount  of  time  necessary  to  examine 
the  hygienic  or  sanitaiy  value  of  market  milk  supplies. 

Flavor  of  Pasteurized  Cheddar  Cheese 

For  a number  of  years  the  Dairy  Department  has  been  engaged  in 
experimenting  upon  the  method  of  .pasteurization  as  applied  to  the 
manufacture  of  cheddar  cheese.  The  use  of  this  process  enables  a 
more  uniform  product  to  be  made  than  where  made  from  raw  milk, 
but  the  cheese  does  not  develop  the  same  kind  of  flavor  as  does  that 
made  from  raw  milk.  This  lack  of  flavor  development  may  be  due 
to  the  fact  that  in  the  pasteurizing  process  certain  groups  of  bacteria 
are  destroyed,  and  since  the  starter  which  is  added  to  the  pasteurized 
milk  contains  only  lactic  acid  organisms,  the  cheese  may  be  deflcient 
in  certain  groups  of  bacteria  which  are  essential  to  the  development  of 
the  proper  flavor.  Under  ordinary  conditions  milk  receives  its  quota 
of  contaminating  organisms,  so  far  as  the  natural  infection  of  bac- 
teria is  concerned  from  but  two  sources,  namely,  the  digestive  tract 
of  the  animal  and  the  soil. 

Experiments  this  year  have  been  made  by  E.  G.  Hastings  (Agricul- 
tural Bacteriology)  and  J.  L.  Sammis  (Dairy  Husbandry)  adding  to 
pasteurized  milk  a lactic  acid  starter,  and  also  a special  starter  made 
from  digested  milk  which  had  been  inoculated  with  material  from  one 
or  the  other  of  these  natural  foci  of  infection.  Control  cheeses  con- 
sisted of  those  made  from  pasteurized  milk  by  the  regular  process.  In 
all  instances  where  the  special  cultures  of  this  character  have  been  em- 
ployed, there  is  a marked  difference  in  the  extent  of  flavor  development 
between  the  control  and  the  experimental  cheese.  It  is  too  early  yet  to 
say  what  the  flnal  quality  of  this  cheese  will  be,  but  the  results  obtained 
up  to  the  present,  indicate  that  this  method  may  afford  a means  of 
overcoming  the  low  flavor  of  pasteurized  cheese  by  the  addition  of  spe- 
cial starters  for  this  purpose. 

Coagulation  of  Milk  in  Condensed  Milk 

In  the  manufacture  of  condensed  milk,  much  trouble  is  experienced 
due  to  the  coagulation  of  the  milk  when  it  is  sterilized.  During  the  war 
there  were  large  losses  of  condensed  milk  from  this  cause,  it  being 
assumed  that  the  cans  upon  opening  contained  sour  milk  when  it  was 
found  to  be  in  a curdled  condition.  At  certain  condenseries  in  this 
state  the  claim  was  made  that  50  per  cent  of  the  milks  delivered  by 
farmers  would  not  stand  the  condensing  process  without  undergoing 
coagulation.  The  problem,  then,  became  not  merely  a condensing 
problem,  but  of  utmost  impoifance  to  the  milk  producer.  H.  II.  Som- 
mer (Agricultural  Chemistry)  has  used  a way  of  testing  milk  that 
tells  whether  it  will  withstand  tlie  condensing  process.  If  milk  so 
‘treated  coagulates,  it  will  not  stand  the  condensing  ]>rocess. 


44 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


His  studies  liave  shown  that  the  amount  of  acidity  in  fresh  milk 
that  is  capable  of  being  determined  by  the  chemical  process  of  titra- 
tion, has  nothing  to  do  with  coagulation.  This  titration  method  is  now 
generally  followed  at  condenseries,  but  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  er- 
roneous method  of  determining  the  suitability  of  milk  for  condensing, 
because  coagulation  has  no  direct  relation  to  acidity.  It  is  true  that 
an  increased  acidity  of  the  milk  will  lower  the  point  of  coagulation, 
but  the  acidity  in  fresh  milk  does  not  control  the  coagulation  point. 
This  appears  to  be  determined  largely  by  the  balance  between  tlie  lime 
and  the  citrates  and  phosphates  in  inillk.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
point  of  coagulation  of  milk  can  be  lowered  by  the  additon  of  soluble 
lime  salts.  It  appears  that  milk  with  too  much  soluble  lime  will  have 
a low  coagulation  point,  but  this  can  be  corrected  by  the  addition  of 
either  citrates  or  phosphates,  which  render  the  calcium  less  soluble. 
While  this  work  has  not  yet  reached  a final  status,  it  is  exceedingly 
suggestive  as  indicating  a more  definite  solution  of  the  problem  which 
assumes  much  practical  importance  where  milks  are  being  refused 
on  the  basis  of  their  apparent  acidity,  and  are  therefore  regarded  as 
unsuitable  for  condensing  purposes. 

The  Necessity  of  Mineral  Substances  in  Animal  Nutrition 

Although  it  is  well  known  that  certain  mineral  substances  are  abso- 
lutely indispensable  to  the  nutrition  of  animal  life,  yet  our  specific 
knowledge  regarding  the  nature  or  form  in  which  these  should  be  sup- 
plied is  sadly  lacking.  Of  the  various  mineral  substances,  calcium,  or 
lime,  occupies  a superlative  position  in  animal  nutrition.  Most  of  the 
animal  feeds  contain  lime  in  some  fornp  but  it  is  a matter  of  much 
importance  as  to  the  exact  chemical  form  in  which  this  substance 
appears.  If  it  could  be  shown  that  calcium  in  the  form  of  a silicate 
which  is  most  insoluble  would  be  as  available  as  the  more  soluble  lac- 
tate, then  in  all  probability  all  forms  of  calcium  occurring  in  our  feeds 
and  fodders  would  serve  in  animal  nutrition.  With  herbivora,  where 
straw  has  been  used  as  the  sole  source  of  roughage,  a very  great  im- 
provement has  been  noted  in  the  character  of  the  otfspring  born  to 
mothers  whose  rations  included  calcium  in  the  form  of  carbonate,  (as 
in  wood  ashes)  acetate,  and  phosphate  (as  m rock  phosphate). 

Effect  of  Lime  Added  to  Grain-straav  Rations  on  Reproduction  of 

Cattle 

For  example,  a cow  fed  upon  whole  oats  and  oat  straw  produced  a 
53-pound  dead  calf,  while  an  addition  of  2 pounds  of  calcium  acetate 
to  each  100  pounds  of  grain  resulted  in  the  production  of  a normal 
calf  weighing  73  pounds.  The  significance  of  this  condition  is  ap- 
parent in  certain  of  the  northern  counties  of  the  state  where  farmers 
are  frequently  compelled  to  feed  largely  grain  and  cereal  straws' with 
a minimum  amount  of  silage.  Reports  of  such  trouble  were  received 
by  E.  B.  Hart  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  and  G.  C.  Humphrey  (Animal 


Experiments  in  Farming 


45 


Husbandry)  this  last  year  from  farmers  using  such  rations  in  Barron 
County.  Unquestionably  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  it  will  be 
possible  to  recommend  with  safety  cheap  sources  of  calcium  for  feeding 
animals  under  certain  conditions. 

In  the  work  carried  out  by  H.  Steenbock  and  P.  W.  Boutwell  (Agri- 
cultural Chemistry)  on  mineral  metabolism,  sodium,  chlorine,  and  cal- 
cium were  studied  as  to  their  importance  in  maintaining  life  with  ma- 
ture rats  on  cereal  grains.  First,  it  has  been  established  with  cereal 
grains  that  corn,  for  instance,  needs  to  be  fortified  with  the  above- 
named  chemical  elements  in  order  to  insure  growth.  Such  data  have 
not  been  available  because  sodium  and  chlorine  have  always  been  added 
in  the  form  of  common  salt,  sodium  chloride.  It  appears  that  the 
need  for  chlorine  is  less  urgent  than  for  other  elements.  The  need  for 
calcium,  however,  seems  to  be  paramount,  even  as  to  maintenance  of 
bodily  weight  and  vigor,  and  this  demand  is  apparently  independent  of 
the  necessity  of  calcium  as  a base  to  neutralize  any  acids  in  the  body. 
The  cereal  proteins,  however,  are  so  poor  in  their  general  nature  that 
even  the  addition  of  lime  to  them  alone,  when  given  in  the  form  of 
calcium  carbonate  or  calcium  lactate,  is  not  able  to  prevent  a failure  in 
the  maintenance  of  the  nutrition  of  the  animal.  The  rat  has  the  ability 
to  assimilate  calcium  from  many  of  its  combinations,  as  for  instance, 
from  calcium  sulphate,  or  even  calcium  silicate,  in  spite  of  their  low 
solubility.  These  compounds  appear  to  be  just  as  efficient  in  satisfying 
the  requirements  of  the  animal  for  calcium  as  when  taken  from  more 
soluble  substances,  such  as  calcium  lactate  or  calcium  carbonate. 

The  Relation  of  Sulfur  to  Plant  Growth 

Composting  sulfur  in  connection  with  rock  phosphate  for  the  produc-  ■ 
tion  of  available  phosphoric  acid  with  farm  manure  has  shown  little 
efficiency  in  results  secured  by  the  Agricultural  Chemistry  Department. 
Fully  75  per  cent  as  much  acidity  was  secured  where  sulfur  and  rock 
phosphate  were  composted  together  as  that  obtained  in  an  equivalent 
amount  of  acid  phosphate  fertilizer.  The  high  cost  of  sulfuric  acid  is 
forcing  investigators  to  look  for  a cheaper  way  of  making  rock  phos- 
phate more  available,  and  it  is  proposed  that  it  be  composted  directly 
with  elemental  sulfur  in  the  soil. 

Chlorine  as  Related  to  Plant  Growth 

W.  E.  Tottingham  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  has  continued  his  studies 
on  the  effect  and  I'ole  of  chlorine  in  plant  growth  by  the  use  of  po- 
tatoes under  field  conditions.  Previous  experiments  in  which  this  ele- 
ment was  used  in  Ihe  form  of  a potassium  salt  or  as  common  salt 
produced  variable  effects  on  yields,  depending  upon  the  variety  of  plant 
used,  but  did  not  disturb  the  composition  and  quality  of  the  tubers 
unless  applied  in  excessive  amounts. 

The  results  of  the  last  season  where  common  salt  was  used  as  supple- 
menting farm  maniu’e  and  commercial  fertilizers  as  well,  showed  only 


46 


AVisconsin  Bulletin  319 


minor  disturbances  in  yield  and  composition.  The  results  in  this  test 
indicate  so  far  that  the  texture  of  the  soil  is  of  more  significance  than 
fertilizer  treatment  in  determining  the  quality  of  potatoes  treated  with 
sodium  chloride. 

Influence  of  Grain  Diet  on  Production  of  Still-born  Pigs 

A¥here  the  ration  fed  to  sows  is  made  exclusively  of  seeds  or  seed 
by-products,  normal  growth  is  not  maintained.  Such  food  materials 
must  be  supplemented  with  additions  of  mineral  matter,  better  protein, 
and  in  some  instances  with  a fat-soluble,  gTOwth-stimulating  vitamine. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  answer  the  question  whether  normal 
maintenance  and  reproduction  can  be  obtained  where  the  entire  food 
supply  is  derived  from  grains  and  their  by-products  alone.  Demon- 
strations were  first  made  by  Mr.  Steenbock  with  small  animals,  such 
as  rats,  in  which  it  was  found  that  the  grains  and  distilled  water  would 
not  support  maintenance. 

These  experiments  have  now  been  extended  by  Mr.  Hart  to  the 
use  of  swine,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  action  of  such  substances  upon 
larger  animals.  Here  it  was  found  that  grain  rations  led  to  v/eak 
and  immature  off-spring,  although  this  was  not  always  exhibited  in 
the  first  litter,  but  increasing  numbers  of  dead  pigs  at  birth  were 
found  in  succeeding  litters.  AVhere  grains  alone  make  up  the  sole 
diet,  except  as  it  is  fortified  with  common  salt  and  naturally  hard  water, 
it  was  found  that  mature  sows  could  be  maintained  in  fairly  good  con- 
ditions for  many  months,  but  ultimately  failed  to  thrive. 

No  one  grain  was  distinctly  inferior  to  others  in  respect  to  its 
capacity  to  maintain  these  animals.  Although  earlier  ill  effects  were 
exhibited  where  barley  was  used  alone  as  compared  with  the  corn  or 
oat  grain,  the  main  difficulty  in  these  rations  is  the  low  amount  of  lime 
which  is  taken  into  the  system,  which  in  the  presence  of  common  salt 
is  likely  to  alter  the  characteristics  of  the  intestinal  wall  as  to  the 
permeability  of  the  membrane.  Increasing  the  permeability  of  these 
membranes  apparently  permits  of  the  gnadual  poisoning  of  the  ani- 
mal due  to  absorption  of  by-products  from  the  intestinal  tract,  wdiich 
ultimately  leads  to  such  a degree  of  interference  with  the  normal 
physiological  processes  of  the  tissue  as  to  result  in  poisoning  of  the 
young.  It  seems  highly  probable,  therefore,  that  the  large  losses  due  to 
still-born  pigs  at  time  of  farrowing  may  in  part  be  ascribed  to  the 
diet  of  the  mother. 

Effect  of  Organic  Nutrients  on  Growth  and  Reproduction 

Efforts  made  by  the  Agricultural  Chemistiy  Department  this  last 
year  have  been  to  determine  the  influence  of  natural  roughages  on 
reproduction.  It  is  now  recognized  that  such  roughages  are  important 
carriers  of  mineral  materials,  as  well  as  the  growth-stimulating  vi- 
tamines.  Studies  have  been  undertaken  with  marsh  hay  and  timothy. 
Already  work  has  demonstrated  that  clover,  alfalfa,  and  corn  stover 


Experiments  in  Farming 


47 


are  efficient  roughages,  while  the  cereal  straws  are  not.  The  relatively 
large  use  made  of  timothy  and  marsh  hay  in  this  state  makes  it  de- 
sirable to  secure  definite  information.  It  is  possible  that  the  excessive 
use  of  timothy  hay  for  breeding  horses  is  the  cause  of  many  weak 
foals.  The  work  has  not  yet  progressed  sufficiently  far  to  answer  the 
question  positively,  but  experiments  made  with  marsh  hay  grown  locally 
on  the  University  marsh,  which  is  an  alkaline  soil,  indicate  that  such 
hay  carried  over  1 per  cent  of  lime,  and  animals  fed  upon  such  roughage 
appear  well  nourished  as  is  indicated  in  figure  21.  It  will  be  nec- 
essaiy  to  secure  hay  from  acid  marsh  soils  such  as  those  generally 


FIG.  21.— HEALTHY  PROGENY  WITH  MARSH  HAY  AS  ROUGHAGE 

Mar.sh  hay  grown  on  an  alkaline  marsh  has  been  found  to  be  a good  roughage  for 
breeding  animals.  I'he  hay  on  which  the  cow  Avas  fed  Avas  groAvn  on  the  University 
marsh,  Avhich  is  alkaline.  It  contained  nearly  as  much  lime,  an  important  factor  in 
successful  reproduction,  as  clover  hay.  Both  coav  and  calf  are  in  good  condition. 


found  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state  in  order  to  study  this  aspect  of 
the  problem. 


Home-grown  Rations  for  Milk  Production 

In  modern  dairy  farming  clover  and  alfalfa  have  become  recognized 
as  almost  indispensable  roughages.  The  high  protein  content  of  these 
roughages  has  led  to  the  generally  accepted  view  that  tliey  can  supple- 
ment the  moi'e  starchy  grains  and  low  protein  silage.  It  might  naturally 
be  assumed,  tliei’etore,  that  a home-grown  ration  consisting  oL'  cereal 
gi-ains,  silage,  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  would  fnrnisli  snfticient  ]U’o- 
tein  for  high  milk  |)rodnction.  Tlie  newci-  vi(uv  ]3oint  of  protein  chem- 
istiy,  however,  tcaclies  tliat  the  value  of  protein  nii.xtnri's  for  growth 
or  milk  ])rodnctiori,  depends  not  mei-ely  upon  the  •finantity of  protein 
ingested,  Imt  the  (nudity  of  the  food  nnti-iment  taken  in.  In  co- 


48 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


operation  with  Mr.  Humplirej',  Mr.  Hart  has  studied  the  problem,  and 
finds  that  it  is  not  possible  to  furnish  dairy  cows  of  high  milk-producing 
capacity  with  a protein  content  of  sufficient  amount  or  quality  to  main- 
tain maximum  production  from  clover  hay,  corn  silage,  and  a cereal 
grain  mixture,  whether  the  latter  is  made  up  of  corn,  barley,  or  oats, 
separately  or  a mixture  of  all  three.  On  the  other  hand,  a cow  giving 
a much  lower  quantity  of  milk,  but  with  large  food  consumption,  can  be 
kept  on  such  a ration  without  losing  protein  from  her  own  tissues.  A 
poor  cow,  giving  22  pounds  of  milk  daily  for  16  weeks,  will  maintain 
her  nitrogen  balance  on  such  a ration,  but  where  lactation  reaches  as  high 
an  output  as  35  pounds  a day,  the  capacity  of  the  animal  to  absorb 
food  of  this  class  was  insufficient  to  meet  the  requirements  of  such  a 
high  milk  flow.  At  a cost  of  7 cents  a day,  two  pounds  of  any  of  the 
ordinary  plant  protein  concentrates  such  as  oilmeal,  could  have  been 
added  to  the  basal  ration  and  have  saved  the  loss  of  50  cents  worth  of 
milk  a day  through  decreased  milk  flows. 


riG.  22.— THOUSANDS  OF  CHICKENS  DIE  FROM  LEG-WEAKNESS 

These  chickens  are  of  the  same  age  (three  months)  and  they  received  the  same  diet, 
except  that  the  one  on  the  right  was  fed  a ration  containing  20  per  cent  of  dirt. 
Leg  weakness  appears  to  be  due  to  over-feeding,  resulting  in  intestinal  troubles. 


Leg  Weakness  in  Chickens 

Thousands  of  chickens  are  lost  eveiy  spring  from  so-called  ^fleg 
weakness.”  J.  G.  Halpin  (Poultry  Husbandry)  and  E.  B.  Hart  (Agri- 
cultural Chemistry)  have  attempted  to  study  this  problem  by  growing 
the  baby  chicks  on  a chemically  made  up  or  synthetic  ration  such  as 
has  been  so  successfully  used  in  the  development  of  the  white  rat. 
On  a ration  made  of  dextrin,  casein,  salt,  2 per  cent  of  sugar,  5 per 
cent  of  butterfat,  and  2 per  cent  of  yeast  as  a source  of  the  water- 
soluble  vitamine'  a baby  chick  passes  into  a serious  condition  of  leg 
weakness  in  five  to  six  weeks.  Such  a ration  would  permit  of  a nonnal 
development  of  tlie  rat.  Where  the  vitamine  content  has  been  in- 


Experiments  in  Farming 


49 


creased  through  the  addition  of  more  yeast  and  butter  fat,  no  better 
success  has  been  secured.  Some  success  has  been  reached  where  the 
Jitter  used  was  cut  wheat  straw,  but  in  most  of  the  experiments  shav- 
ings have  been  employed.  An  examination  of  the  intestinal  contents  of 
birds  raised  in  the  presence  of  wheat  straw  litter  indicates  that  a 
considerable  quantity  of  such  material  was  found  in  the  intestines, 
thus  indicating  that  it  has  acted  as  a roughage.  Birds  grown  on  a 
litter  of  shavings  were  found  not  to  contain  this  material. 

Further  experiments  are  in  progress  to  determine  the  influence  of 
roughages  made  of  inert  material,  such  as  paper,  charcoal,  dirt,  agar, 
and  so  forth. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  leg  weakness  may  be  due  to  over-feeding, 
resulting  in  the  production  of  intestinal  disturbances  and  that  it  can 
be  corrected  by  the  use  of  certain  kinds  of  roughages.  It  is  commonly 
believed  that  it  is  necessary  for  fowls  to  have  access  to  earth  in  order 
to  prevent  trouble  of  this  sort,  but  Mr.  Halpin  has  been  successful 
in  raising  chicks  in  cages  that  have  never  been  in  contact  with  the 
ground. 


Lime  Requirements  of  Chickens 

Earlier  experiments  had  indicated  the  superiority  of  oyster  shells 
over  all  other  forms  of  lime  as  influencing  the  egg-laying  capacity 
of  a hen.  Close  to  these  stood  clam  shells,  while  ground  lime  rock, 
ground  bones,  and  such  chemical  compounds  as  precipitated  calcium 
phosphate,  or  calcium  carbonate,  were  not  nearly  so  efficient.  Mr. 
Halpin  and  Mr.  Hart  have  repeated  this  work  this  year  using,  how- 
ever, exact  calcium  equivalent  in  order  that  each  lot  might  secure  just 
as  much  calcium  from  one  source  as  from  the  other.  This  was  ac- 
complished by  mixing  the  calcium  salt  in  the  mash,  which  is  always 
consumed.  Special  efforts  have  been  made  to  secure  a chemical  uni- 
. formity  as  to  the  degree  of  fineness.  At  the  present  writing  oyster 
shells  are  still  in  the  lead  in  causing  higher  egg  production.  From 
January  to  July  egg  production  where  oyster  shells  were  used  aggre- 
gated 762  eggs,  clam  shells  618  eggs,  while  lime  rock,  bone,  and  cal- 
cium carbonate  claimed  from  587  in  the  case  of  bones  down  to  358 
with  lime  rock,  and  with  check  lots  receiving  no  lime,  375. 

Presence  of  Fat-soluble  Vitamine  in  Root  Crops 

A recognition  of  the  importance  of  the  fat-soluble  vitamines  in 
the  development  of  growing  young  makes  it  important  to  know  the 
general  distribution  of  tliese  substances  in  nature.  Altliough  they  are 
concentrated  in  considerable  quantities  in  such  foods  as  eggs  and  milk, 
it  is  a matter  of  worth  to  know  how  widely  they  ai'e  distributed  in 
other  kinds  of  food.  Mr.  Steenbock  and  Mr.  Fmutwell  have  recently 
studied  the  various  foods  and  food  sul)stances  witli  reference  to  tliis 
matter. 


50 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


Hoots,  for  example,  are  not  invariably  poor  in  this  constituent.  A 
diet  containing  15  per  cent  of  carrots  or  sweet  potatoes  as  the  sole 
source  of  the  fat-soluble  vitainine  was  found  to  be  far  richer  in  this 
constituent  than  a diet  carrying  it  exclusively  in  5 per  cent  of  butter 
fat.  Such  root  crops  as  Irish  potatoes,  mangels,  sugar  beets,  ruta- 
bagas, dasheens,  and  parsnips  are,  however,  poor  in  this  stimulating 
substance. 


fig.  23.— yellow  corn  VERSUS  WHITE  CORN 


One  rat  (left)  received  white  corn  as  thei  sole  source  of  the  fat-soluble  vitamine.  It 
developed  sore  eyes  and  the  characteristic  symptoms  of  a lack  of  the  vitamine.  The 
other  (right),  of  the  same  age  and  sex,  received  yellow  corn  as  the  source  of  the 
vitamine.  It  remained  in  good  health  and  vigor,  and  weighed  138  grams  on  the  same 
day  that  the  other  weighed  65  grams. 

Is  Yellow  Corn  Better  Feed  Than  White  Corn? 

Many  stockmen  have  long  preferred  yellow  to  white  corn  for  their 
feeding  operations.  It  has  been  customary  to  explain  such  a relation 
by  mere  whim  or  prejudice.  Mr.  Steenbock  has  recently  made  the 
discovery  that  white  corn  contains  practically  none  of  the  soluble 
vitamine  which  stimulates  the  growth  of  animal  life,  and  that  yellow 
corn  contains  a sufficient  amount  of  such  substance  to  allow  normal 
growth  and  reproduction  in  such  animals  as  the  rat.  This  discovery 
was  the  result  of  an  accidental  obsefv^ation  in  which  it  was  noted  that 
where  a large  number  of  rats  were  fed  upon  a diet  consisting  largely 
of  white  corn,  it  was  not  possible  to  secure  normal  growth  and  that 
young  rats  would  not  live  longer  than  about  three  months.  When, 
however,  yellow  corn  was  used,  growth  was  continued  in  a normal 
manner.  Red  corn  with  white  endosperm  was  found  just  as  deficient 
as  white  corn,  but  when  the  endosperm  was  yellow,  again  consid- 
erable amounts  of  fat-soluble  vitamines  have  been  demonstrated.  In 
the  studies  on  roots  above  mentioned,  it  was  also  found  that  those 
roots  possessing  a yellow  pigment,  such  as  carrots  and  sweet  potatoes. 


Experiments  in  Farming 


51 


contained  tlie  fat  soluble  substance  while  white  root  crops,  as  mangels 
or  Irish  potatoes,  contained  little  or  none. 

Are  the  Fat-soluble  Vitamines  Kelated  to  the  Yellow  Pigments'? 

These  findings,  it  is  needless  to  say,  have  opened  up  a most  promising- 
field  of  vitamine  study,  especially  when  the  foregoing  statements  are 
correlated  with  other  well-known  facts.  Last  year  it  was  found  that 
when  butterfat  was  heated  four  hours  at  the  boiling  temperature,  it 
lost  its  growth-promoting  properties  and  simultaneously  also  lost  its 
color. 

Mendel  and  Osborne  have  found  that  the  liquid  portion  of  beef 
fat,  which  is  more  or  less  colored,  is  active,  while  the  solid  portion, 
which  is  colorless,  is  inactive.  Lard,  which  is  always  colorless,  is  also 
inactive.  Such  facts  as  these  together  with  a knowledge  of  the  oc- 
currence of  yellow  pigments  in  leaves — an  excellent  source  of  fat 
soluble  vitamine — and  the  failure  to  find  it  associated  with  the  red 
j)igments  of  red  beets,  suggested  that  a study  of  yellow  pigments  in 
their  relation  to  nutrition  might  well  be  made.  Such  work  is  under 
progress  with  many  extracts  of  roots, and  leaves  containing  these  color 
substances. 

The  Effect  of  Heat  on  the  “Anti-scurvy^^  Properties  of  Milk 

Products 

Recent  work  in  animal  nutrition  has  established  thoroughly  that 
scuiwy  is  the  result  of  a lack  of  some  nutritive  element  in  the  diet. 
McCollum  and  Pitz  had  previously  considered  that  this  was  due  to 
intestinal  putrefaction  and  retention  of  feces.  The  result  came  from 
the  fact  that  their  experimental  animals  had  constanly  before  them 
abundant  supplies  of  milk.  It  has  now  been  demonstrated  that  milk 
contains  the  growth-stimulating  vitamine  that  prevents  the  production 
of  scurvy.  From  data  now  accumulated  it  seems  reasonably  sure  that 
there  are  three  distinct  types  of  vitamines  present  in  food — the  water- 
soluble,  the  fat-solul)le,  and  the  so-called  “anti-scorbutic”  vitamine 
tliat  is  capable  of  overcoming  the  tendency  to  produce  the  disease 
known  as  scurvy. 

The  fact  that  the  anti-scorl>utic  vitamine  is  very  unstable  and  is 
easily  destroyed  by  the  mere  drying  of  material,  even  when  done  at 
ordinai-y  temperatures,  has  led  to  a study  of  its  occurence  in  various 
products.  It  has  been  well  established  that  in  the  process  of  canning 
and  the  dehydration  of  vegetables,  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  anti-scorlnitic 
vitamine  is  destroyed.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  the  necessity  of 
not  relying  upon  such  materials  for  the  prevention  of  scurvy  where 
diets  are  restricted.  The  results  of  N.  R,  Ellis  (Agricultural  Chemistry) 
show  that  milk  sterilized  at  248®  F.  for  10  minutes,  the  commercial 
unsweetened  condensed  milk,  and  the  commercial  milk  jiowders  that 
have  been  examined,  have  lost  their  anti-scorbutic  proiierties.  Even 
pasteurization  at  145  F.  for  30  minutes  materially  reduces  the  amount 
of  this  type  of  vitamine  in  milk.  In  fact,  temperature  maintained 


52 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


at  176°  for  10  minutes  is  less  destructive  to  this  growth  stimulant 
than  a 30  minute  treatment  at  the  lower  temperature  of  145°. 

The  fact  that  vitamines  of  this  type  are  so  readily  affected  by  the 
drying  of  fodders,  makes  it  important  to  determine  whether  milk  pro- 
duced from  cows  fed  on  dried  grains  and  feeds  is  less  anti-scorbutic  than 
those  produced  on  a summer  pasture.  The  evidence  that  has  been  ac- 
cumulated up  to  the  present  would  seem  to  indicate  that  milk  from  a 
herd  that  has  been  kept  closely  confined  in  the  barn  is  of  less  value  for 
infant  feeding  from  this  particular  standpoint  than  that  produced  by 
cows  under  summer  conditions  on  pasture.  These  facts  in  no  way  con- 
denm  such  milk  or  any  of  the  milk  products,  but  simply  teach  the  lesson 
that  when  such  products  are  used  for  infant  food,  they  must  be  supple- 
mented by  those  carriers  of  the  anti-scorbutic  vitamine  that  are  known 
to  be  strongly  impregnated  with  such  growth-stimulating  substances. 
For  this  purpose,  orange  juice  or  some  other  good  fresh  fruit  juice  is 
eminently  suited. 

The  Stability  or  Water-Soluble  Vitamines 

The  recent  discovery  made  in  animal  nutrition  at  this  station  that 
growth-stimulating  substances  soluble  in  water  are  to  be  found  in 
some  foods  and  not  in  others,  has  led  to  the  further  study  as  to  the 
elfect  which  heat  used  in  the  preparation  of  foods  would  exert  on  these 
chemical  substances.  Mr.  Steenbock  and  Mr.  Boutwell  have  studied 
the  reaction  of  heat  on  the  water-soluble  vitamines,  and  find  that  the 
same  are  not  readily  destroyed  unless  the  reaction  of  the  medium  is 
alkaline;  that  such  substances  are  not  destroyed  by  nitrous  acid  or  by 
hydrogen ; and  that  they  cannot  be  distilled.  The  fact  that  this  substance 
is  widely  distributed  in  most  food  stulfs  in  fairly  liberal  amounts,  and 
that  it  is  a relatively  stable  substance,  increases  the  probability  that  de- 
ficiencies in  this  type  of  growth-stimulant  in  the  diet  of  man  and 
animal  are  not  veiy  great. 

Miss  Amy  L.  Daniels  (Home  Economics)  has  made  similar  investi- 
gations with  beans,  both  navy  and  soy,  where  they  were  cooked  with  and 
without  pressure,  and  in  the  presence  of  baking  soda.  Cabbage  was 
used  as  a representative  of  the  starch-free  succulent  vegetable.  These 
differently  treated  vegetables  were  fed  to  white  rats.  The  results  with 
beans  show  that  when  cooked  at  a high  temperature  (248°  F.)  or  boiled 
in  water  to  which  an  alkali  (baking  soda)  has  been  added,  no  appre- 
ciable loss  in  water-soluble  vitamine  occurred.  Experiments  with 
cabbage,  raw,  cooked  in  the  pressure  cooker,  boiled  with  baking  soda 
or  in  distilled  water  also  showed  no  indication  that  there  had  been 
any  considerable  destruction  of  the  vitamine  from  the  various  methods 
employed  in  commercial  canning  processes.  It  was  furthermore  noted 
that  animals  (rats)  made  normal  growth  on  diets  in  which  the  liquor 
from  cooked  beans  was  the  sole  source  of  water-soluble  vitamine. 


Experiments  in  Farming 


53 


Modification  of  Milk  for  Infant  Feeding 

The  need  of  lowering*  the  fat  content  of  milk  in  infant  feeding 
necessitates  the  use  of  a reliable  method  applicable  to  home  conditions. 
Many  methods  have  been  devised  for  use  in  laboratories  where  chemical 
apparatus  is  available,  but  these  generally  are  not  suited  to  the  average 
home  with  the  ordinary  kitchen  equipment.  Miss  Daniels  has  wmrked 
out  a method  of  lowering  the  fat  content  of  milk  which  may  be  done 
accurately  in  the  home  with  ordinary  care. 

Milk  is  allowed  to  stand  on  ice  until  the  cream  line  is  distinct,  usually 
from  10  to  12  hours.  The  cream  is  then  removed  with  as  little  mixing  as 
possible  by  using  a dipper  with  a removable  bottom.  To  the  remain- 
ing skimmilk  a part  of  the  cream  can  then  be  added  to  bring  the  fat 
content  up  to  the  desired  standard.  In  order  to  obtain  milk  with  2 
per  cent  of  butter  fat,  54  cubic  centimeters  of  the  cream  must  be  added 
to  every  24  ounces  of  milk ; for  3 per  cent  milk,  108  cubic  centimeters ; 
and  for  4 per  cent  milk,  162.  The  use  of  a graduate  in  the  home  or 
some  type  of  accurate  measuring  cup  gives  the  best  results.  The  so- 
called  “Chapin”  dipper  for  the  removal  of  cream  is  very  satisfactory, 
as  it  varies  but  slightly  in  the  amount  of  cream  it  delivers  from  time 
to  time. 


Soybean  Oil  Experiments  Continued 

Continuance  of  the  cooperative  work  of  the  Genetics  and  Agricul- 
tural Chemistry  departments  has  been  made  on  the  influence  of  se- 
lection on  the  chemical  constitution  of  soybean  oil.  Selections  made 
of  high-iodine  seeds  and  low-iodine  seeds  have  been  studied  with 
reference  to  the  chemical  character  of  these  oils,  and  have  yielded 
interesting  and  suggestive  results.  The  lowest  of  the  low  strain  grown 
in  1917,  having  an  iodine  index  of  120,  produced  in  1919  a progeny 
averaging  an  iodine  number  of  125,  Avhile  the  highest  of  the  high  strain 
of  the  1917  crop,  with  an  iodine  index  of  144,  gave  last  year  an  iodine 
number  averaging  137.  Of  the  high  strain,  only  six  plants  have  fallen 
below  the  maximum  of  the  low.  This  result  was  unexpected  where  selec- 
tion was  being  made  in  a pure  strain  consisting  of  descendants  of  a 
single  original  plant.  E.  M.  Nelson  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  has  found 
it  possible  to  devise  a means  whereby  he  can  separate  sufficient  oil 
from  a part  of  a single  bean  so  that  analytical  results  may  be  secured, 
and  leave  the  rest  of  the  bean  for  planting  so  as  to  determine  exaclly 
what  relation  the  .seed  has  to  the  oil  content  of  its  progeny.  This 
method  appears  to  give  a better  control  of  the  relation  of  j)rogeny  to 
parent  than  has  heretofore  been  available. 

Inuerttance  of  Milk  and  1\Teat  Production  in  Cattle 

Experiments  in  animal  breeding  must,  of  necessity,  progress  very 
slowly  and  it  would  be  unwise  to  give  even  tentative  suggestions  or 
conclusions  relative  to  results  until  the  number  of  generations  of 


54 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


animals  and  the  number  of  individuals  involved  were  sufficiently 
large  so  as  to  give  some  support  to  theories  offered. 

In  1912,  L.  J.  Cole  (Genetics)  began  experiments  upon  the  in- 
heritance of  meat  and  milk  production  by  crossing  an  Angus  bull 
to  Jersey  cows  and  a Jersey  bull  to  Angus  cows.  The  result  of  these 
first  crosses  was  that  the  first  generation  cross-breds  were  all  black 
polled  like  the  Angus,  but  in  most  other  respects  were  to  a degree 
intermediate  between  the  two  parent  breeds,  there  being  considerable 
individual  variation.  It  would  appear  from  the  results  so  far  ob- 
tained that  there  was  some  correlation  between  milk  production  and 
type  as  the  best  producers  are  those  that  show  more  of  the  dairy 
type.  They  are  all  only  medium  in  meat  production,  showing  their 
dairy  parentage  particularly  in  the  hind  quarters. 

The  second  generation  offspring  produced  by  breeding  the  cross- 
breds to  one  another  show  still  greater  variation  in  type,  as  might  be 
expected.  This  variation  is  especially  marked  in  the  matter  of  color 
and  horns.  The  result  with  respect  to  horns  confirms  previous  con- 
clusions that  they  are  inherited  in  definite  Mendelian  fashion, 
for  approximately  three-fourths  of  the  second  generation  offspring 
are  polled  and  one-fourth  have  well  developed  .horns,  not  differing 
essentially  from  those  of  pure  bred  Jerseys.  Relative  to  the  presence 
of  horns  it  may  be  said  that  this  refers  to  the  bony  core  which  must 
be  present  to  produce  a true  horn.  Horny  scurs,  loosely  attached 
to  the  skin,  may  be  present  on  some  of  the  first  generation  crossbreds, 
particularly  the  males,  as  well  as  on  polled  individuals  of  the  second 
generation.  While  it  has  been  found  profitable  in  certain  instances 
to  produce  definite  crosses  between  breeds  for  special  purposes,  the 
present  experiment  would  seem  to  confirm  the  conclusion  that  this 
does  not  apply  to  attempts  to  crossbreed  cattle  differing  widely  in 
type  in  the  hope  of  securing  the  good  qualities  of  both.  It  further 
emphasizes  the  impracticability  of  carrying  any  such  method  beyond 
the  first  crossbred  on  account  of  the  great  diversity  that  is  sure 
to  follow  in  subsequent  generations. 

Studies  of  Inheritance  in  Pigeons 

Mr.  Cole  has  continued  his  work  of  many  years  in  this  direction, 
studying  the  principal  colors  of  pigeons,  so  that  they  can  be  handled 
in  breeding  much  as  the  chemist  handles  his  chemicals  in  the  labora- 
tory; that  is,  where  known  combinations  are  put  together,  they  produce 
predictable  results.  Of  especial  interest  are  some  of  the  results  that 
have  been  secured  on  two  characters  which  are  linked  with  sex  in  their 
inheritance,  and  which  furthermore  are  not  inherited  entirely  inde- 
pendently of  each  other  but  show  a tendency  to  hang  together  when  they 
once  become  associated.  Such  correlation  may  prove  to  have  much 
practical  importance,  as,  for  example,  if  some  other  character  should 
be  found  to  be  closely  linked  with  high  egg  production  in  fowls.  Other 
studies  on  pigeons  relate  to  the  matter  of  sex  determination  and  seem  to 


Experiments  in  Farming 


55 


indicate  that  the  sex  of  an  individual  is  determined  primarily  by  a rather 
definite  mechanism  in  inheritance  rather  than  by  external  influences,  such 
as,  for  example,  the  over-production  of  eggs,  as  has  been  maintained. 

The  Tenancy  Problem 

Although  Wisconsin  has  less  tenancy  than  any  neighboring  states, 
in  1920  nearly  one  acre  in  five  (19  per  cent)  was  worked  under  lease. 
It  is  quite  likely  that  tenancy  will  still  further  increase  as  the  state 
becomes  more  fully  settled  and  land  becomes  more  valuable.  Tenancy 
is  most  prevalent  when  land  is  high,  farms  large,  and  the  population 
of  native  American  stock. 

Although  ownership  is  undoubtedly  to  be  preferred  to  lenancy, 
nevertheless  a limited  amount  of  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  any  sub- 
stitutes for  it,  such  as  more  laborers,  or  more  ownership  under  contract 
or  heavier  mortgages.  Out  of  each  1000  agricultural  workers  in  Wiscon- 
sin, there  were  94  more  laborers  and  only  25  more  tenants  in  1910  than 
in  1880.  Other  data  collected  by  B.  H.  Hibbard  and  J.  D.  Black,  (Ag- 
ricultural Economics  Department)  show  that  men  who  were  tenants  in 
southern  Wisconsin  in  1916  became  tenants  at  an  average  of  29.2  years 
of  age,  but  that  the  men  who  were  owners  in  1916  had  become  owners 
at  32.9  years  of  age.  Thus  it  is  the  first  step,  the  step  from  laborer 
to  tenant,  that  is  lengthening  out  most  rapidly  at  present.  On  the  other 
hand,  mortgaging  is  becoming  increasingly  prevalent.  Wisconsin  was 
the  only  state  in  the  Union  which  showed  an  increase  between  1900 
and  1910  in  percentage  of  value  of  farms  covered  by  mortgage. 

An  analysis  of  the  business  records  for  1913,  1914  and  1915  of  265 
owned  farms,  148  share-rented  farms,  and  45  cash-rented  showed 
$400  higher  net  farm  incomes  for  the  rented  farms  than  for  the  owned 
farms.  This  is  largely  because  tenant  farmers  work  harder  than 
owners.  In  the  owner  class  are  always  to  be  found  a gi’eat  many 
farmers  who  have  quit  working  hard  or  have  become  out-of-date  in  their 
farming  methods.  Too  many  tenant  farmers  work  so  hard  that  they 
do  not  take  time  to  live  properly.  Mortgaged  owners  work  even  harder 
than  tenants. 

Leasing  Systems  in  Wisconsin 

In  1910,  slightly  over  half  of  the  farms  rented  in  Wisconsin  were 
rented  for  cash.  At  cash  rent,  only  in  a few  cases  is  livestock  rented 
with  the  land.  At  share  rent,  in  a majority  of  cases  either  part  or  all 
of  the  livestock  is  rented  with  the  land.  Leases  covering  both  land 
and  livestock  are  called  ^‘land-and-stock  leases’h  Share  leases  without 
livestock  are  “grain  leases.’'  Leases  partly  share  and  partly  cash  are 
“share-cash  leases.” 

Mr.  Hibbard  and  Mr.  Black  of  the  Agriculinral  Economics  De- 
partment, which  lias  been  investigating  leasing  systems  in  Wisconsin 
have  found  the  following  1ypes  of  land-and-stock  leases  in  Wisconsin  : 
(1)  the  half-and-half  dairy  lease,  under  which  the  landlord  furnishes 


56 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


all  the  productive  livestock  and  receives  one-half  the  proceeds  and 
increase  of  livestock;  (2)  the  landlord’s  cattle  dairy  lease,  in  which 
the  landlord  furnishes  all  the  productive  livestock;  (3)  the  one-third 
stock  lease,  under  which  the  landlord  furnishes  all  the  livestock  and 
machinery;  and  (4)  the  one-half  all  stock  lease,  under  which  each  party 
furnishes  one-half  of  all  working  capital.  There  are  two  types  of 
grain  leases  in  use  in  Wisconisin,  the  two-thirds  grain  lease,  under 
which  the  tenant  furnishes  all  the  working  capital  and  gets  two-thirds 
of  the  grain  at  the  machine,  and  the  one-half  grain  lease,  under  which 
the  landlord  pays  half  of  many  of  the  expenses,  such  as  seed,  twine  and 
threshing.  In  some  sections  of  Wisconsin  leases  are  found  which  repre- 
sent mixtures  of  stock  and  grain  leases. 

Cash  renting  predominates  where  farms  are  small,  where  farming 
is  much  diversified  (especially  near  large  cities),  where  tenants  are 
scarce,  and  where  the  type  of  farming  is  now  changing  from  gi’ain 
to  beef  cattle.  South-western,  eastern  and  northern  Wisconsin  show 
more  cash  than  share  tenants.  Share  renting  predominates  where 
rented  land  is  still  largely  grain-farmed,  wdiere  special  staple  crops 
like  tobacco  and  potatoes  are  grown,  and  in  sections  where  land  is 
high  in  price,  farms  fairly  large,  tenants  numerous  and  dairying  the 
usual  type  of  farming.  Share  renting  is  most  prevalent  in  western 
and  central  Wisconsin  and  in  the  Rock  River  Valley. 

The  half-and-half  dairy  lease  is  found  in  the  southern  dairy  sec- 
tions where  land  is  high  in  price,  and  the  landlord’s  cattle  lease  further 
north,  where  land  is  cheaper.  The  other  two  stock  leases  are  found 
only  occasionally.  The  grain  leases  are  found  in  western  and  central 
Wisconsin  and  wherever  farmers  are  renting  additional  land  on  shares. 

An  analysis  of  the  division  of  income  under  these  various  types 
of  share  leases  shows  that  in  general  the  shares  which  landlord  and 
tenant  receive  are  proportional  to  the  amount  of  capital,  management 
and  responsibility-taking  which  each  contributes  to  the  business.  Cash 
rents  of  1185  farms  in  1917  were  3.9  per  cent  of  real  estate  values. 
Taxes,  maintenance  and  depreciation  reduced  this  3.9  per  cent  to  2.5 
per  cent.  This  represents  the  net  income  landlords  Avere  wulling  to 
receive  and  still  own  land,  reckoning  as  they  did  upon  increase  in  land 
values,  security  of  investment,  and  so  forth.  Under  half-and-half 
dairy  leases,  the  landlords  received,  in  one  county  $201,  and  in  another 
$348,  more  than  2.5  per  cent  net  income  on  the  value  of  their  farms, 
as  pay  for  the  extra  management  and  responsibility  involved  in  such 
leases.  The  other  share  leases  gave  the  landlords  smaller  surpluses. 

The  general  tendency  in  leasing  arrangements  is  toAvard  greater 
definiteness  in  agreements,  toward  more  workable  methods  of  dividing 
expenses  and  receipts,  and  toward  the  adoption  of  arrangements  more 
conduciA-e  to  good  agriculture. 

Progress  of  the  Soil  Sura^ey 

The  most  outstanding  work  of  the  soil  survey  this  last  year  has 
been  the  publication  of  a consolidated  map  that  covers  the  entire 


Experiments  in  Farming 


57 


northern  half  of  the  state.  This  work  has  been  based  upon  the  pre- 
vious reconnoissanee  publications  made  by  A.  R.  Whitson  (Soils)  in  five 
separate  reports,  but  owing  to  the  exhaustion  of  these  editions  these 
separate  maps  have  been  combined  into  a single  map,  expressing  the  soil 
classifications  in  popular  form,  such  as  sands,  silt  loams,  and  so  forth. 
Copies  of  this  large  map  and  accompanying  report  can  be  obtained  from 


The  general  survey  of  northern  Wisconsin  by  sections  has  recently  been  published 
as  a single  map  and  report.  Detailed  surveys  have  been  made  of  20  counties  and 
four  counties  are  partly  surveyed. 


the  Superintendent  of  Public  Property,  State  Capitol,  Madison,  for  25 
cents  a copy.  A separate  edition  of  this  map  by  individual  counties 
has  also  been  prepared  together  with  an  explanatory  text,  and  is 
published  in  cooperation  with  the  State  Geological  and  Natural  ITistory 
Sur\’ey  as  Experiment  Station  P>iilletin  No.  300.  This  publication 
will  be  sent  free  of  charge  to  applicants  who  are  specifically  interested 
in  any  particular,  definite  region  in  the  state. 


58 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


The  detailed  soil  surveys  now  cover  20  counties  on  which  15  reports 
are  at  present  available.  Nineteen  counties  are  yet  to  be  surveyed. 
The  field  work  of  the  detailed  surveys  of  Rock,  Jackson,  Outagamie 
and  Kenosha  Counties  has  been  completed  during  the  past  season,  and 
these  reports  are  in  progress  of  preparation.  The  field  work  in  Wal- 
worth, Racine,  and  Adams  Counties  is  now  in  progi’ess.  In  cooperation 
with  the  State  Geological  Survey  in  connection  with  work  which  they 
have  had  in  progi’ess  in  eastern  Eau  Claire  and  Chippewa  Counties,  ap- 
proximately 15  townships  have  been  mapped  in  greater  detail  than  fonn- 
eriy  and  at  a gi’eatly  reduced  expense  so  far  as  the  funds  of  the  Soil 
Siu’vej"  are  concerned.  Inasmuch  as  this  region  is  one  in  which  there 
is  a large  amount  of  undeveloped  land,  the  information  which  it  has 
been  possible  to  get  in  this  way  will  be  of  considerable  assistance  in  land 
settlement.  The  United  States  Geological  Survey,  in  cooperation  with 
the  State  Geological  and  Natural  Histoiy  Survey,  is  now  engaged 
in  making  topogi’aphical  maps  of  various  portions  of  the  state  which 
will  supplement  the  work  of  the  soil  survey. 

Uses  to  Which  Soil  Maps  Are  Put 

The  classification  of  soils  made  by  the  soil  siu’vey  is  used  extensively 
by  persons  interested  in  special  lines  of  agiiculture.  The  industries 
of  pea-canning,  sugar  beets,  hemp,  and  other  special  croj^s,  each  of 
which  req’uires  a special  soil  condition,  find  the  work  of  the  sui’vey 
of  utmost  importance. 

Soils  for  pea-canning  industry.  The  rapid  increase  of  the  canning 
industry  of  the  state  makes  a stud}’  of  the  relation  of  the  crop  to 
the  soil  of  much  importance.  A number  of  canneries  have  been 
started  in  sections  of  the  state  in  which  the  soil  is  especially  unsuited 
to  the  growth  of  this  crop,  and  partial  or  complete  failure  has  not  in- 
frequently followed  after  a few  years  of  experience.  One  of  the 
most  necessary  conditions  for  successful  pea-growing  is  a good  sup- 
ply of  lime  in  the  soil.  While  most  of  the  virgin  soils  have  a fair 
supph’  of  this  element  available  when  first  brought  under  cultivation, 
it  is  used  up  in  a comparatively  short  time,  and  the  lack  of  larger 
supplies  of  lime  carbonate  in  the  sub-soil  results  in  an  unsatisfactory 
soil  condition  for  the  cultivation  of  peas  and  for  other  crops  requir- 
ing considerable  quantities  of  lime. 

Sugar  beets.  The  sugar  beet  also  makes  a heavy  demand  upon 
the  soil,  especially  with  reference  to  lime,  nitrogen,  and  potash.  Un- 
less these  elements  are  abundant  naturally  in  the  soil  and  in  an 
available  form,  they  must  be  supplied  by  the  addition  of  fertilizers 
containing  these  necessary’  ingredients. 

Soils  and  drainage.  Maps  and  reports  of  the  soil  survey  are  found 
to  be  of  great  advantage  in  the  organization  of  drainage  districts  and 
in  the  operation  of  new  farm  drainage  laws.  Marsh  lands  vary  greatly 
in  character.  While  some  are  highly  acid  others  are  abundantly 
supplied  with  lime.  Some  are  markedly  deficient  in  available  potash. 


Experiments  in  Farming 


59 


while  others  are  not  only  deficient  in  potash  but  phosphoric  acid. 
Some  marshes  improve  much  during  a few  years  of  cultivation  while 
others  do  not  show  improvement  owing  to  their  chemical  cliaracter- 


FIG.  25.— leaching  RETARDS  THE  GROWTH  OF  CORN 

Drainage  and  leaching  affect  the  availability  of  rock  phosphate  to  corn  and  thereby 
retard  the  growth.  Compare  the  plants  to  the  right,  from  an  unloached  pot,  with 
the  plants  to  the  left,  from  a leached  pot. 


istics.  It  is  of  importance  therefore  that  maps  and  rejiorts  })c  fur- 
nished which  will  give  the  necessary  information  regarding  tlie  ciuality 
of  these  soils  and  the  j)Ossibilil ies  of  their  lining  reclaiined  by  drainage. 


60 


AVisconsin  Bulletin  319 


Availability  of  Rock  Phosphate  in  Relation  to  Soil  Leaching 

Experiments  by  F.  C.  Bauer  and  E.  Truog  (Soils)  have  shown  that 
leaching  or  drainage  aids  materially  in  the  availability  of  rock  phosphate. 
If  leaching  removes  the  soluble  calcium  bi-carbonate,  a plant  which  has 
heretofore  been  a weak  feeder  on  rock  phosphate  will  feed  much  more 
strongly  on  this  material  than  when  leaching  is  not  carried  on.  F.  W. 
Parker  (Soils)  has  studied  the  effect  of  lime  in  preventing  calcium  phos- 
phate from  going  over  into  iron  and  aluminum  phosphates.  By  imitat- 
ing in  the  laboratory  the  soil  conditions,  these  experiments  indicate  that 
the  presence  of  lime  does  prevent  in  a considerable  measure  the  forma- 
tion of  less  desirable  iron  and  aluminum  phosphates,  depending  upon  the 
amount  of  lime  present.  The  benefit  caused  by  the  application,  which 
has  heretofore  been  merely  assumed,  in  this  respect,  is  now  experi- 
mentally demonstrated. 

The  Function  of  Lime  in  Plants 

Mr.  Truog  and  Mr.  Parker  have  continued  their  wmrk  upon 
the  function  of  lime  in  different  types  of  plants.  A review  of  all 
available  data  collected  indicates  that  the  lime  content  of  jolants  runs 
roughly  parallel  with  the  nitrogen  and  protein  content.  Plants  may 
be  divided  into  two  groups,  those  high  in  lime  and  protein  and  those 
low  in  lime  and  protein.  This  relationship  indicates  that  lime  is  con- 
nected with  the  protein  formation,  and  since  the  lime  content  of  pro- 
tein is  itself  normally  low,  it  would  show  that  the  lime  does  not  form 
a part  of  the  protein  itself,  but  helps  in  the  building  process  or  in  the 
removal  of  the  waste  materials.  Plants  which  are  greatly  favored  by 
the  liming  of  acid  soils  are  high  in  protein.  This  throws  further  light 
on  the  relation  of  soil  acidity  and  the  liming  problem. 

Relation  of  Soil  Acidity  to  Plant  and  Legume  Bacteria 

The  use  of  improved  technical  methods  to  determine  the  amount 
of  soil  acidity  in  plants  has  been  made  this  last  year  through  work  by 
A.  C.  Haas  and  C.  B.  Clevenger  (Soils).  With  this  method  it  has  been 
possible  to  determine  the  acidity  of  leaves,  stems,  and  roots  of  a number 
of  plants  at  different  stages  of  growth  and  at  two-hour  inteiwals  during 
a long  growing  period.  These  results  show  that  the  leaves  and  stems 
are  more  acid  during  the  night  than  during  the  day  time.  With  the 
roots,  the  opposite  is  true.  Additions  of  lime  decrease  the  acidity 
of  the  roots,  but  not  necessarily  that  of  the  stems  and  leaves,  unless 
the  soil  is  very  strongly  acid.  The  data  secured  along  these  lines  are 
aiding  greatly  in  explaining  the  relation  of  soil  acidity  to  plant  growth. 

Improvements  of  Soil  Acidity  Tests 

Truog’s  soil  acidity  method  which  he  devised  several  years  ago  has 
been  materially  improved  this  year.  By  replacing  calcium  chloride 


Experiments  in  Farming 


61 


with  barium  chloride,  which  does  not  take  up  moisture,  much  improve- 
ment has  been  made  in  that  this  chemical  can  be  ground  up  with  the 
soil.  The  chemicals  are  now  intimately  mixed  and  kept  in  a dry  condi- 
tion. Several  other  improvements  made  in  the  mechanics  of  the  ap- 
paratus make  it  easier  of  manipulation.  A new  combination  standard 
acidity  and  lime  chart  has  been  devised  which  indicates  approximately 
the  amount  of  lime  desirable  to  use  with  soils  of  a varying  degree 
of  acidity. 


fig.  26.-THE  PEA  MOTH  IS  THUS  FAR  LIMITED  TO  A SMALL  AREA 


Field  work  in  the  pea-growing-  section  of  Wisconsin  indicates  as  high  as  21  per  cent 
infestation  of  the  moth,  although  the  area  is  still  limited.  Reports  from  other  coun- 
ties suggest  that  the  pest  may  be  present  there. 

Fertilizer  Needs  of  Peat  Marshes 

Carefully  controlled  experiments  instituted  by  W.  W.  Weir  (Soils) 
on  the  fertilizing  needs  of  the  University  marsh  have  been  carried  on 
by  laying  out  fields  in  three-year  rotations,  using  corn,  barley,  or  rye 


62 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


and  alsike  clover  and  timothy.  The  fertilizer  treatment  applied  this 
year  was  used  with  the  corn.  Control  plots  gave  a crop  of  38.5  bushels 
an  acre,  while  those  receiving  fertilizer  applications  ranged  from  71  to 
91.9  bushels  an  acre.  It  is  evident  from  the  results  of  these  experi- 
ments that  potash  is  the  element  most  markedly  needed  by  corn  growing 
on  this  type  of  soil,  and  that  with  a good  application  of  fertilizer 
containing  this  element,  heavy  yields  can  be  produced.  Since  it  was 
impossible  to  secure  muriate  of  potash  for  use  this  year,  cob  ash  con- 
taining 25  per  cent  of  potash  has  been  used. 


fig.  27.— soil  cocoons  BETRAY  THE  PRESENCE  OF  THE  PEA  MOTH 


The  larvae  burrow  into  the  ground  at  the  end  of  the  season  and  spin  a cocoon 
from  which  they  emerge  as  moths  in  June.  Larvae  hatched  from  the  eggs  of  the 
moth  feed  on  the  ripening  peas. 

No  particular  benefit  seems  to  have  developed  from  the  addition  of  a 
phosphate  fertilizer.  It  should  be  mentioned  however,  that  this  par- 
ticular marsh  is  not  now  in  an  acid  condition,  but  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  further  cropping  is  quite  likely  to  exhaust  the  available 
supply  of  phosphate,  making  the  use  of  such  fertilizer  in  addition  to 
potash  necessary  later. 

Pea  Moth  Menaces  a Leading  Wisconsin  Industry 

Years  ago  Door  County  occupied  the  unique  position  as  the  leading 
pea-producing  county  of  the  state,  but  the  ravages  of  a new  insect  to 


Experiments  in  Farming 


63 


Wisconsin,  the  pea  moth,  have  of  late  years  made  the  cultivation  of 
this  crop  so  unprofitable  as  to  reduce  greatly  the  acreage  grown.  So 
serious  has  this  trouble  become  that  the  County  Board  of  Supervisors 
last  year  took  action  appealing  to  the  Experiment  Station  to  undertake 
studies  of  this  trouble.  L.  G.  Gentner  and  C.  L.  Fluke  (Economic 
Entomology)  established  a field  laboratory  at  Sturgeon  Bay  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1918  and  also  1919. 

This  trouble,  which  affects  only  the  pea  plant,  so  far  seems  to  be 
confined  to  the  Door  Peninsula  and  adjoining  counties.  Undoubtedly 
it  was  introduced  some  10  or  15  years  ago  through  seed  purchased 
from  Canadian  growers.  Those  engaged  in  growing  peas  have  recog- 
nized the  trouble  as  one  of  increasing  importance  for  a number  of 
years,  but  the  spread  of  the  disease  has  gradually  extended  until  both 
shores  of  Green  Bay  are  now  involved. 

As  the  moth  is  incapable  of  flying  long  distances,  it  seems  probable 
that  infestation  of  Oconto  County,  which  is  yet  comparatively  slight, 
probably  has  occurred  through  transmission  around  the  head  of  Green 
Bay.  Summer  before  last  (1918)  the  losses  in  Door  county  alone  were 
estimated  as  high  as  40  per  cent.  Some  farmers  were  unable  to  dis- 
pose of  their  crops  at  all  because 
the  dried  peas  were  rejected  on 
account  of  their  wormy  condi- 
tion. 

The  insect  winters  over  in  the 
soil,  spinning  a small  cocoon  of 
soil  particles,  and  emerging 
about  the  middle  of  JuW  as  a 
dark  brown  moth  about  one- 
fourtli  of  an  inch  long.  The 
worm  after  hatching  penetrates 
the  pea  pod  developing  a pro- 
tective coating  composed  mostly 

excrement.  From  this  it  feeds 
on  tlie  nearest  developing  peas 
in  the  pod,  rapidly  chiseling  its 
way  into  and  around  the  pea 
kei-nel. 

It  does  not  aj)pear  praciical)]e 
to  cope  with  tliis  troul)le  througli 
the  use  of  insecticides  in  tlie  field 
as  tlie  pi’esent  system  of  cultiva- 
tion in  fields  would  not  permit 
of  an  afiplication  of  a spray. 

Peas  that  mature  l)efoi’e  July 
20  will  probably  escape  the  at- 


FKi.  2S.  WHKRK  'I'lllv  J’KA  MOTH 
LAliVAl':  IIAVF  FKD 


tack  of  the  moth.  This  might 
be  done  with  the  early  canning 
varieties,  but  the  field  pea  that 


Croj)  losses  in  tin;  /lcl<l  and  canning  pea 
industry  liave  l>e(‘n  lar^o  in  eertain  see- 
tions,  since  such  injury  as  this  Rreatly 
reduces  tlie  value  of  tlie  crop. 


64 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


is  grown  for  the  ripened  product  has  not  been  developed  to  mature  as 
early  as  this. 

The  problem  is  one  of  such  major  importance  that  it  is  hoped  it 
can  be  aggressively  attacked  when  the  new  branch  Experiment  Station 
in  Door  County,  authorized  by  the  last  legislature,  is  developed  next 
year. 

Potato  Leafhopper  Associated  with  Tipburn 

Almost  every  year  more  or  less  difficulty  occurs  in  potato  crops 
due  to  what  is  generally  known  at  “tipburn.”  While  much  of  this 
difficulty  is  undoubtedly  caused  by  such  climatic  conditions  as  low 
rainfall  and  high  temperature,  recent  investigations  indicate  that  it 
is  also  accentuated  materially  by  the  presence  of  an  insect  known 
as  the  potato  leafhopper.  During  the  summer  of  1918  the  leafhopper 
was  extremely  abundant,  not  only  in  this  state  but  throughout  tlie  east 
to  New  Jersey  and  southward  to  Kentucky.  The  loss  was  probably 
a third  of  the  entire  potato  crop,  and  in  southern  and  central  Wis- 
consin the  percentage  of  loss  was  even  greater.  Investigations  made 
by  the  Economic  Entomology  Department  in  cooperation  with  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  indicate  that  the  leafhopper  is  in  a large 
measure  responsible  for  the  loss.  It  has  been  clearly  established  that 
even  one  adult  might  be  responsible  for  the  diseased  condition  of  the 
entire  plant. 

The  first  outward  indication 
of  disease  is  a slight  yellowing, 
usually  at  the  tip  of  the  leaf. 
This  yellowing  spreads  rapidly 
down  the  margins  and  toward 
the  midrib  followed  by  a brown- 
ing or  curling  upward  of  the 
edge  of  the  leaf.  Efforts  were 
made  to  control  the  disease 
through  the  use  of  bordeaux  mix- 
ture. Eight  potato  varieties 
were  used  in  the  test,  the  solution 
being  applied  by  a wheel-bari’ow 
sprayer  with  a pressure  of  100 
to  150  pounds  and  the  spray  pro- 
jected on  the  under  side  of  the 
foliage.  In  all  cases  the  treated 
lot  showed  an  increase  of  from 
two  to  three-fold  over  the  un- 
treated area.  Bordeaux  mixture, 
4-4-50,  alone  or,  better,  in  com- 
bination with  nicotine  sulfate 
1 :1200,  will  protect  potato  plants 
from  bad  infestation  by  the  hop- 


FIG.  20.— leafhopper  CAUSED  THE 
INJURY 

The  potato  leaf  shows  the  curled, 
browned,  diseased  margin  which  indicates 
the  presence  of  the  leafhopper.  This  dis- 
eased condition  may  spread  until  the  entire 
leaf  js  dead. 


Experiments  in  Farming 


65 


per  and  the  diseased  condition  of  the  potato  foliage  for  which  the  leaf- 
hopper  is  responsible.  Efforts  made  to  determine  the  enemies  of  the 
leafhopper  indicate  a presence  of  a fungus  disease  attacking  both 
adults  and  nymphs,  and  also  a tiny  wasp -like  insect  bred  in  the  leaf- 
hopper  egg.  These  parasites  should  receive  further  investigation. 

Green  Clover  Worm  Affects  Beans 

This  year  the  green  clover  worm  which  is  often  a serious  pest  on 
alfalfa,  has  apparently  jumped  from  its  normal  host  and  was  found 
by  Mr.  Gentner  to  be  a serious  menace  to  certain  truck  crops,  particu- 
larly garden  beans.  Many  gardens  and  fields  containing  dwarf,  pole, 
soy,  and  lima  beans  were  found  in  the  southern  part  of  the  stale  to  be 
injured  by  the  ravages  of  the  larvae  of  the  dark  brown  or  blackish  moth, 
which  is  the  adult  form  of  the  green  clover  worm.  Fortunately,  nature 
often  holds  such  troubles  as  these  in  check,  as  a very  large  number 
of  the  larvae  were  found  to  be  killed  by  parasites  during  the  latter 
part  of  August  and  early  September.  Spraying  the  bean  plants 
with  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  1 to  IV2  pounds  to  50  gallons 
of  water  will  control  the  pest.  As  the  foliage  of  beans  is  rather 
tender,  this  poison  should  be  applied  carefully,  and  after  fog  has 
formed,  other  means  of  combating  the  pest  must  be  resorted  to. 

Strawberry  Crown  Miner  Found 

Although  the  strawberry  crown  miner  has  not  been  reported  in  this 
state  as  injuring  strawberries,  observations  made  by  Mr.  Gentner  seem 
to  indicate  that  it  is  well  established.  The  small,  grayish  moth  causing 
this  trouble  deposits  its  eggs  on  the  strawberry  plant  in  the  spring.  , 
The  larvae  burrow  into  the  plant  either  at  the  crown  or  along  the 
root,  making  irregular  tunnels  in  which  they  apparently  prepare  later 
for  over-wintering.  Infestation  observed  upon  strawberry  fields  this 
year  indicates  a greater  severity  of  attack  upon  older  beds.  Where 
infestation  is  considerable,  it  is  apparent  that  the  plowing  up  of  the 
bed  early  enough  in  the  fall  so  that  the  roots  will  dry  out  before  the 
larvae  reach  maturity  will  be  the  most  feasible  means  of  holding  the 
trouble  in  cheek.  It  is  suggested  that  spraying  the  plants  early  in 
the  spring  with  an  arsenical  at  the  time  that  the  young  larvae  are 
hatching  may  possibly  prevent  their  entrance  into  the  crown,  although 
experiments  of  this  type  have  not  yet  been  tried. 

Studies  on  Joiine’s  Disease 

The  Veterinai-y  Science  Department  lias  continued  its  work  in  co- 
operation with  the  Agricultural  Bacteriology  Department  upon  the 
subject  of  Johne’s  disease,  studying  the  incubation  period  of  the 
disease,  the  relative  mortality  in  the  different  herds,  the  manner  in 
which  the  disease  spreads  under  normal  conditions.  Johnin,  which  is  the 
specific  diagnostic  material  that  is  injected  in  the  animal  to  determine 


66 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


the  presence  of  the  disease,  is  introduced  into  the  veins.  In  the  ma- 
jority of  eases,  reaction  has  been  found  to  occur  between  the  third  and 
sixth  hour.  With  such  an  early  reaction  as  this,  it  is  necessary  to  take 
the  temperatures  after  injection  within  an  hour  from  the  time  that  the 
Johnin  is  introduced.  Further  studies  have  been  continued  upon  a 
herd  in  Dunn  County,  consisting  of  about  50  head,  which  has  been 
under  observation  for  over  three  years.  This  last  year  more  reactors 
were  found  in  the  herd  when  tested  in  March,  and  also  more  again  in 
June.  These  cattle  were  shipped  to  the  University  farm  for  further 
study.  Six  of  them  have  been  autopsied  and  in  all  cases  lesions  were 
found.  Acid-fast  organisms  that  are  characteristic  of  the  Jolme’s  dis- 
ease were  found  in  all  cases  that  were  critically  examined.  Progress 
upon  the  study  of  this  disease  is  relatively  slow,  as  it  takes  nearly  six 
months  before  any  growth  in  culture  media  is  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

Immunization  Against  Contagious  Abortion 

Fighting  fire  with  fire.  The  greatest  menace  to  the  successful 
prosecution  of  the  dairy  industry  lies  in  the  disease  of  contagious 
abortion — not  that  the  actual  losses  from  this  disease  by  death  are 
larger  than  those  arising  from  tuberculosis,  but  on  account  of  the 
comparative  helplessness  of  the  stock  owner  to  control  this  disease. 
Dr.  F.  B.  Hadley  (Veterinary  Science)  has  been  experimenting  for  a 
number  of  years  on  the  treatment  of  this  disease  by  the  application 
of  various  means  of  immunizing  cows  against  the  contagious  abortion 
bacillus.  . 

The  work  for  this  last  year  has  been  principally  in  connection  with 
the  application  of  the  vaccine  composed  of  live  abortion  bacilli.  This 
vaccine  is  prepared  by  the  use  of  a number  of  different  strains  of  the 
bacillus  aborted  in  place  of  a single  culture  of  the  causal  organism. 
This  germ  loses  its  disease-producing  power  readily  under  artificial 
conditions  of  growth  and  hence  the  desirability  of  trying  various  strains 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  vaccine. 

The  necessity  for  continued  efforts  in  this  direction  is  indicated  by 
the  fact  that  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  whole  subject  of  immunizing 
dairy  cattle  against  this  disease  is  yet  only  in  the  experimental  stage, 
large  numbers  of  applications  have  been  receded  from  stock  owners 
who  desire  to  use  this  type  of  vaccine  in  the  treatment  of  their  herds. 
Since  January,  1919,  25,000  cubic  centimeters  or  sufficient  to  inject  850 
animals,  has  been  made  and  distributed  only  through  the  veterinary 
profession.  The  fact  that  this  vaccine  is  composed  of  living  abortion 
bacilli  that  have  been  treated  in  a way  so  as  to  destroy  in  part,  at 
least,  their  disease-producing  powers,  makes  it  imiDossible  for  such 
a method  to  be  used  in  general  jiractice.  No  specific  result  can  yet 
be  presented  as  to  the  success  of  this  method,  but  the  department  is 
hopeful  that  the  use  of  this  method  may  be  of  much  service  to  the 
livestock  profession. 


Experiments  in  Farming 


67 


Barley  for  Swine  Feeding 

Due  to  the  large  demand  in  the  past  for  barley  for  malting  purposes 
in  this  state,  this  grain  has  been  for  the  most  part  grown  as  a cash 
crop  instead  of  being  fed  to  livestock  on  the  farm.  For  this  reason 
many  Wisconsin  farmers  do  not  appreciate  the  high  value  of  barley 
for  stock  feeding.  Trials  are  therefore  being  carried  on  by  F.  B. 
Morrison  and  G.  Bohstedt  (Animal  Husbandry)  to  determine  the  rela- 
tive value  of  barley  and  corn  for  swine  feeding  and  to  determine  the 
best  method  of  feeding  barley  and  of  preparing  it  for  feeding. 

While  several  trials  have  previously  been  carried  on  at  other  ex- 
periment stations  to  compare  the  value  of  corn  and  barley  when  hand- 
fed  to  pigs,  it  has  seemed  important  to  determine  the  relative  value 
of  these  grains  when  both  are  self-fed  by  modern  methods.  In  each 
of  two  trials  carried  on  last  winter  and  spring  one  lot  of  pigs  was 
self-fed  shelled  corn  and  tankage  while  another  lot  was  self-fed 
ground  barley  and  tankage.  On  the  average  the  barley-fed  pigs  gained 
1.66  pounds  a head  daily,  while  those  fed  corn  made  somewhat  more 
rapid  gams,  1.94  pounds.  The  corn-fed  pigs  ate  373  pounds  of  corn 
and  30  pounds  of  tankage  for  each  100  pounds  gain,  and  the  feed 
cost  of  100  pounds  gain  was  $11.45  with  feeds  at  last  year’s  prices. 
The  barley-fed  pigs  required  430  pounds  barley  and  24  pounds  tank- 
age for  100  ]30unds  gain  and  the  feed  cost  of  100  pounds  gain  was 
$10.35,  or  $1.10  less  than  on  corn.  From  this  it  is  seen  that  barley- 
fed  pigs  required  15  jDer  cent  more  grain  but  only  about  three-fourths 
as  much  tankage  as  the  corn-fed  pigs. 

As  prices  are  constantly  changing  the  most  important  question  is 
the  relative  value  of  these  grains  a 100  pounds  or  a bushel.  In  these 
trials  ground  barley  was  actually  worth  9.7  per  cent  less  a 100  pounds 
than  shelled  corn.  Considering  the  cost  of  grinding,  whole  barley  was 
worth  13.7  per  cent  less  a 100  pounds  than  shelled  corn. 

For  spring  pigs  on  pasture  last  summer  there  was  just  a trilie  more 
difference  between  the  value  of  these  grains,  barley  before  grinding 
being  worth  15  per  cent  less  than  shelled  corn  a 100  pounds.  These 
results  with  sell-led  pigs  agi’ee  closely  with  those  previously  obtained 
with  these  grains  when  they  were  hand-fed. 

Soaking  whole  barley  has  been  recommended  by  some  as  a substi- 
tute for  gi-inding  the  grain.  However,  in  a trial  last  spring  this 
p]-oved  to  be  a decidedly  ineflicierit  method  of  preparation.  Soaked 
whole  barley  was  worth  only  00  cents  a bushel,  conq)ared  with  diy 
ground  barley  at  89  cents  a bushel,  in  this  trial  a comparison  was 
also  made  to  find  whether  it  was  more  economical  to  self- feed  ground 
barley  and  tankage  free  choice  than  to  hand-feed  the  ground  barley 
and  tankage.  The  pigs  which  were  self- fed  made  slightly  larger  gains. 
However,  they  tended  to  eat  more  tankage  than  was  needed  to  balance 
their  ration,  and  therefore  the  cost  of  100  pounds  gain  was  slightly 
higher  than  where  the  barley  and  tankage  wei'e  hand-fed  and  only 
enough  tankage  was  sujiiilied  to  balance  the  i-ation.  In  a later  trial 


68 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


excellent  results  have  been  obtained  where  a mixture  of  barley  and 
tankage  has  been  self -fed,  just  enough  tankage  being  included  in  the 
mixture  to  balance  the  ration  properly.  The  comparisons  made  in 
these  trials  indicate  that  in  feeding  barley  it  is  more  economical  to 
self-feed  a mixture  of  barley  and  tankage  than  to  self-feed  the  two 
feeds  free  choice  and  let  the  pigs  balance  their  own  ration,  as  is  com- 
monly done  in  the  case  of  shelled  corn  and  tankage.  Trials  are  being 
continued  to  determine  the  proportion  of  tankage  needed  to  balance 
barley  for  pigs  of  various  ages. 

Barley  Versus  Corn  eor  Milk  Cows 

Barley  is  one  of  the  grains  most  highly  esteemed  for  milk  cows  in 
Europe  and  in  the  western  states,  but  it  has  not  been  used  widely  in 
this  section  for  this  purpose.  As  there  were  no  data  available  to  show 
the  value  of  barley  for  milk  production  compared  with  corn,  two  trials 
have  been  carried  on  by  Mr.  Morrison,  Mr.  Humphrey,  and  R.  S. 
Hulce  (Animal  Husbandry)  to  study  this  question. 

Last  winter  two  lots  each  of  six  cows  were  fed  by  the  reversal 
method  for  two  periods  of  six  weeks  each.  Both  lots  were  fed  alfalfa 
hay  and  corn  silage  for  roughage  with  a concentrate  mixture  con- 
sisting of  600  pounds  of  either  ground  corn  or  ground  barley,  and 
400  pounds  of  protein-rich  feeds,  including  wheat  bran,  linseed  meal, 
cottonseed  meal  and  dried  brewers’  grains.  When  fed  barley  the 
average  daily  yield  of  milk  was  25.1  pounds  and  of  butter  fat  .92 
pounds ; while  the  yield  on  corn  was  a trifle  higher,  25.6  pounds  of  milk 
and  .94  pounds  of  butterfat.  However,  the  cows  on  the  average  lost  15.9 
pounds  in  weight  on  the  corn  ration  and  gained  19  pounds  each  on  the 
barley.  This  difference  in  live  weight  compensates  fully  for  the  slight- 
ly larger  yield  of  milk  on  the  corn  ration. 

Another  trial  was  carried  on  last  summer  to  determine  the  value 
of  barley  compared  with  corn  when  used  as  the  chief  part  of  the  con- 
centrate allowance  for  cows  on  pasture.  Two  lots  each  of  5 cows 
were  fed  by  the  reversal  method  for  three  periods  of  flve  weeks  each. 
When  fed  in  addition  to  pasture  5.6  pounds  of  a mixture  consisting  of 
60  pounds  corn,  30  pounds  wheat  bran,  and  10  pounds  cottonseed  meal, 
the  average  daily  yield  of  milk  was  26.3  pounds  and  of  butterfat  .94 
pounds.  When  the  same  amount  of  ground  barley  was  substituted  for 
the  ground  corn,  the  average  daily  yield  of  milk  was  26.9  pounds  and 
of  butterfat  was  .96  pounds.  In  this  trial  the  cows  gained  on  the 
average  1.1  pounds  on  the  corn  ration  and  lost  3.3  pounds  each  on  the 
barley  ration. 

From  these  two  trials  it  may  be  concluded  that  pound  for  pound, 
ground  barley  and  ground  corn  are  equal  in  feeding  value  for  milk 
production. 

Barley  Versus  Oats  for  Work  Horses 

In  the  corn  belt  barley  has  been  used  to  little  extent  for  feeding 
work  horses.  In  trials  which  have  been  carried  on  in  France  and 


Experiments  in  Farming 


69 


at  two  of  the  American  experiment  stations  it  was  found  that  pound 
for  pound,  whole  barley  was  less  valuable  for  work  horses  than  whole 
oats.  However,  in  the  western  states  barley  is  extensively  used  for 
horses  with  excellent  results.  As  barley  contains  less  of  hulls  than 
oats  and  furnishes  more  digestible  nutrients  to  each  hundred  pounds  it 
was  thought  that  it  would  prove  at  least  equal,  or  even  superior,  to 
oats  for  horses  if  prepared  so  the  animals  could  utilize  it  fully.  Pre- 
vious trials  at  this  Station  have  shown  that  there  is  a saving  of  but 
5 to  6 per  cent  in  crushing  oats  for  working  horses.  Undoubtedly, 
however,  the  saving  in  the  case  of  barley  is  much  greater,  and  it  is 
accordingly  advisable  to  crush  or  grind  barley  for  horses,  as  it  is  also 
for  cattle  and  swine. 

During  the  last  summer  Mr.  Morrison,  Mr.  Bohstedt  and  Mr.  Fuller 
(Animal  Husbandry)  carried  on  a trial  with  10  teams  of  work  horses 
to  determine  the  relative  value  of  crushed  barley  versus  crushed  oats. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  trial  one  horse  in  each  team  was  fed  crushed 
oats  and  the  other  crushed  barley,  the  two  lots  receiving  equal  weights 
of  the  two  grains.  Very  shortly  it  became  evident  that  the  horses 
receiving  the  crushed  barley  were  gaining  in  weight  more  rapidly  than 
those  fed  on  the  same  weight  of  crushed  oats,  which  meant  that  the 
barley  was  worth  more  pound  for  pound  than  the  oats.  Accordingly, 
the  amount  of  barley  had  to  be  reduced  so  as  to  keep  the  weights  of 
the  two  lots  approximately  equal.  After  eight  weeks  the  rations  were 
reversed,  the  horses  which  had  been  fed  oats  then  receiving  barley. 
During  the  second  period,  for  each  100  pounds  of  crushed  oats  fed 
one  lot  of  horses,  the  other  lot  received  88.7  pounds  of  barley  or  a 
difference  of  11.3  per  cent.  The  barley-fed  horses  gained  slightly 
less  during  this  period  than  the  oat-fed  horses.  From  the  results  of 
the  two  periods,  it  is  concluded  that  crushed  barley  is  superior  to 
crushed  oats  for  horse  feeding,  being  worth  about  10  per  cent  more  a 
100  pounds  when  the  two  grains  are  of  equal  quality. 

Little  difficulty  was  experienced  in  accustoming  the  horses  to  barley 
and  this  grain  had  no  injurious  effect  on  the  endurance  of  the  animals 
for  work. 


Importance  of  Barley  for  Stock  Feeding 

The  fact  that  good  quality  barley  so  closely  approaches  corn  in 
feeding  value,  pound  for  pound,  not  only  for  swine,  but  also  for  other 
classes  of  stock,  is  of  tremendous  importance  to  Wisconsin  farmers. 
Not  only  is  the  feeding  value  higher  than  oats,  especially  for  fatten- 
ing animals,  but  in  Wisconsin  barley  also  produces  on  the  average  19 
per  cent  more  pounds  of  grain  an  acre  than  does  oats.  In  sections 
of  upper  Wisconsin  where  corn  does  not  usually  mature  for  cribbing, 
the  high-yielding,  pedigree  varieties  of  barley  developed  by  the  Ex- 
periment Station  should  furnish  the  main  feed  for  livestock.'  Even  in 
southern  Wisconsin  many  farmers  would  profit  by  growing  more  bar- 
ley in  place  of  oats. 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


Skimmilk  and  Whey  for  Pigs 

Under  present  conditions,  with  all  feeds  high  in  price,  it  becomes 
especially  important  in  such  a dairy  state  as  Wisconsin  to  find  how  to 
use  onr  dairy  by-products  so  as  to  secure  the  greatest  return  from 
them  and  also  to  learn  their  actual  feeding  value  compared  with  other 
available  feeds. 

Several  methods  of  estimatmg  the  actual  feeding  value  of  skim- 
milk  have  been  used  in  years  past,  a common  estimate  being  that  skim- 
milk,  when  fed  with  grain,  was  worth  one-half  as  much  a 100  pounds 
as  corn  is  worth  a bushel.  But  this  method  of  estimation  was  worked 
out  by  comparing  the  results  from  feeding  pigs  grain  alone  with  the 
results  from  feeding  grain  and  skimmilk.  This  is  obviously  not  a fair 
comparison,  for  no  progi’essive  farmer  now  feeds  his  pigs  such  an  in- 
efficient ration  as  grain  alone  when  they  are  not  on  pasture. 

To  find  the  actual  feedmg  value  of  skimmilk,  Messrs.  Morrison  and 
Bohstedt  have  compared  it  with  the  best  common  commercial  substi- 
tute, which  is  tankage.  Last  year  in  each  of  two  trials  one  lot  of  pigs 
was  self-fed  ground  barley  and  tankage,  free-choice  in  separate  com- 
partments of  a self-feeder,  and  another  lot  was  self-fed  ground  barley 
and  hand-fed  twice  a day  just  enough  skimmilk  to  balance  their  ration 
(not  as  much  as  they  would  have  liked  to  drink).  The  pigs  averaged 
137  pounds  in  weight  at  the  beginning  of  the  trials.  The  gain  of  the 
tankage-fed  pigs  was  satisfactoiy,  1.64  pounds  a head  daily,  but  the 
skimmilk  pigs  gained  1.89  pounds.  The  tankage  pigs  required  450 
pounds  of  barley  and  23  pounds  of  tankage  for  100  pounds  gain, 
costing  $14.72  at  present  farm  prices.  The  skimmilk  pigs  required 
only  406  pounds  of  barley  and  340  pounds  of  skimmilk  for  100  pounds 
gain.  Even  valuing  skimmilk  at  the  old  estimate  of  half  as  much  for 
100  pounds  as  shelled  corn  is  worth  a bushel,  or  69.5  cents,  the  feed- 
cost  of  100  pounds  gain  was  only  $14.45,  or  27  cents  less  than  for  the 
tankage  pigs. 

From  the  results  of  these  later  trials  it  is  evident  that  even  com- 
paring skimmilk  with  tankage,  100  pounds  of  skimmilk  is  worth  fully 
half  as  much  as  a bushel  of  corn,  when  only  enough  skimmilk  is  fed  to 
balance  the  ration.  If  an  abundance  of  skimmilk  is  available  on  the 
farm,  a gTeater  amount  than  this  may  be  economically  fed,  but  this 
excess  amount  over  what  the  pigs  really  need  to  balance  their  ration 
will  be  worth  only  about  half  as  much  or  less.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  protein  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  skimmilk.  After 
the  pig  is  fed  enough  protein  to  balance  his  ration,  he  uses  the  ex- 
cess merely  to  make  fat  instead  of  lean  meat. 

Surprising  results  have  been  secured  with  whey  in  these  trials  when 
used  as  a supplement  to  barley.  Hitherto,  whey  has  not  been  thought 
to  have  any  value  as  a supplement  to  the  grains,  as  it  is  low  in  pro- 
tein, containing  only  .8  ]')ound  protein  a hundred  pounds.  However, 
when  pigs  were  self-fed  ground  barley  and  hand-fed  in  addition  all 
the  whey  they  would  drink,  they  made  surprisingly  good  gains.  In 


Experiments  in  Farming 


71 


fact,  they  gained  more  rapidly  than  pigs  fed  barley  and  tankage  or 
barley  and  skimmilk.  Averaging  together  the  results  for  the  two 
trials  it  was  found  that  pigs  self-fed  barley  and  hand-fed  in  addition 
about  all  the  whey  they  would  drink  gained  2.22  pounds  a head  daily, 
eating  7.8  pounds  barley  a day  and  drinking  18.4  pounds  whey.  They 
required  only  353  pounds  barley  and  854  pounds  whey  for  100  pounds 
gain.  Pigs  self-fed  barley  and  tankage  gained  on  the  average  only 
1.64  pounds  daily  in  these  trials,  requiring  450  pounds  barley  and  23 
pounds  tankage  for  100  pounds  gain. 

These  excellent  results  with  barley  and  whey  alone  are  apparently 
due  to  the  fact  that  while  whey  is  low  in  protein,  the  protein  it  does 
contain,  which  is  chiefly  milk  albumin,  is  of  excellent  quality  to  serve 
as  a supplement  to  the  proteins  of  the  barley  grain.  These  results 
were  secured  with  pigs  which  were  well  grown  at  the ‘beginning  of  the 
trial,  weighing  125  to  150  pounds.  Trials  are  being  continued  to  de- 
termine whether  merely  barley  and  whey  makes  a balanced  ration  for 
younger  pigs.  Undoubtedly  for  animals  which  require  more  protein, 
the  addition  of  some  protein-rich  feed  to  barley  and  whey  will  be  ad- 
vantageous. Similarly,  the  value  of  whey  when  fed  with  corn  is  be- 
ing studied. 

Fattening  Steers  Without  Feeding  Corn  Grain 

On  account  of  the  present  high  price  of  corn  and  other  grains,  it  is 
becoming  of  much  importance  to  determine  whether  good  results  can 
be  obtained  when  fattening  steers  are  fed  only  corn  silage,  hay,  and 
enough  protein-rich  concentrates  to  balance  the  ration,  without  feed- 
ing any  shelled  corn  or  corn  grain  in  other  form.  Two  lots  each  of 
ten  steers  were  fed  last  winter  by  Messrs.  Fuller  and  Morrison  to  com- 
pare the  results  from  this  ration  with  the  results  from  feeding  the 
more  or  less  standard  corn  belt  ration  of  a full  feed  of  shelled  corn, 
enough  protein-rich  concentrates  to  balance  the  ration,  and  all  the  corn 
silage  and  hay  the  steers  would  eat.  The  steers  in  Lot  I fed  shelled 
corn,  ate  on  the  average  12.5  pounds  shelled  corn,  2.8  pounds  cotton- 
seed meal,  32.6  pounds  corn  silage,  and  2.2  pounds  mixed  hay  a head 
daily;  while  the  average  ration  of  Lot  II  was  3.6  pounds  cottonseed 
meal,  56.6  pounds  corn  silage,  and  2.6  pounds  mixed  hay  with  no 
shelled  corn. 

The  steers  fed  slielled  corn  gained  on  the  average  2.31  pounds  a 
head  daily  but  tliose  receiving  no  shelled  corn  made  just  as  large  gains 
in  tills  trial.  Ordinarily  steers  fed  no  shelled  corn  will  make  lower 
gains  than  where  they  ai’e  fed  shelled  corn  in  addition  to  corn  silage. 
The  excellent  gains  without  shelled  corn  were  undoubtedly  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  corn  silage  used  was  of  superior  quality,  cari-ying  a large 
propoT’tion  of  (-oi’ii  grain.  The  fe(*d  cost  of  100  pounds  gain  was  only 
$15.88  for  the  steei's  fed  no  shelled  corn,  and  $23.23  for  the  steers  in 
the  other  lot. 

Owing  to  better  finish,  the  steers  in  Lot  T sold  for  50  cents  more 
per  100  pounds  than  those  fed  no  shelled  coi’n.  IVtore  retiu*n  was  also 


72 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


secured  from  the  pigs  following  Lot  I than  from  those  following  Lot 
II.  However,  these  factors  did  not  offset  the  cheaper  gains  made  by- 
Lot  II,  fed  no  shelled  corn.  Therefore  the  average  retum  per  steer 
over  cost  of  feed  was  $17.28  for  Lot  II  and  $13.86  for  Lot  1. 

Lot  I shrank  4.1  per  cent  on  shipment  to  Chicago  and  Lot  II,  6.4 
per  cent.  As  might  be  expected,  the  dressing  percentage  of  Lot  1 fed 
shelled  corn  was  also  slightly  higher,  bemg  59.73  per  cent,  while  for 
Lot  II  it  was  58.25  per  cent. 

These  results,  together  with  results  secured  in  trials  at  other  sta- 
tions, show  that  when  there  is  but  little  difference  paid  for  highly  fin- 
ished cattle  over  those  carrying  a moderate  amount  of  fat,  bigger  prof- 
its can  quite  often  be  obtained  when  no  corn  is  fed,  except  that  in  the 
silage. 

Publications 

About  92,000  letters  were  written  by  members  of  the  staff  in  re- 
sponse to  inquiries  from  all  over  the  world.  A large  part  of  these 
went  to  fanners  in  the  state  who  were  seeking  information  on  their 
farming  problems.  About  30,000  pages  of  manuscript  and  4,000  sten- 
cils were  prepared  in  addition  to  the  letters. 

This  past  year  ten  bulletins,  two  research  bulletins,  and  three  poster 
bulletins,  one  of  them  reprinted,  were  published  by  the  Experiment 
Station,  in  addition  to  nine  new  and  four  reprinted  circulars  which 
were  sent  out  under  the  Extension  Seiwice  frank. 

The  following  is  a digest  of  the  bulletins  which  have  been  issued  by 
the  Experiment  Station  during  the  year: 

POPULAR  BULLETINS 

Bulletin  294. — Serving  VS'isconsin  Farmers  in  War  Time.  Report  of 
the  Director  of  the  Agricultural  Extension  Service.  (H.  L.  Russell  and 
K.  L.  Hatch).  A report  on  the  service  rendered  to  Wisconsin  farmers 
during  1916-17,  the  early  war  period. 

Bulletin  295. — Getting  Rid  of  the  Stumps  (Agricultural  Engineering 
Departmejit).  The  most  modern  devices  and  methods  for  the  removal 
of  stumps  in  the  cut-over  lands  of  Northern  Wisconsin. 

Bulletin  296. — Contagious  Abortion  Questions  Answered  (F.  B.  Had- 
ley). Questions  and  answers  on  the  cause  and  control  of  contagious 
abortion  in  cattle. 

Bulletin  297. — Hairless  Pigs,  Their  Cause  and  Remedy  (E.  B.  Hart 
and  H.  Steenbock).  The  use  of  iodine  as  a preventive  of  the  hairless 
pig  malady — a serious  menace  to  our  hog  industry. 

Bulletin  298. — Prune  the  Cherry  Trees  (R.  H.  Roberts).  A discus- 
sion of  the  right  way  of  pruning  in  order  to  secure  a maximum  yield 
of  fruit. 

Bulletin  299. — Sandy  Soils  and  How  to  Farm  Them  (A.  R.  Whitson 
and  H.  W.  Ullsperger).  With  right  crops,  proper  fertilization,  and 
proper  management  all  but  the  poorest  of  the  sandy  soils  of  the  state 
can  be  farm.ed. 

Bulletin  300. — War  Prices  and  Farm  Profits  (H.  C.  Taylor  and  S.  W. 
Mendum).  A survey  of  farmers’  incomes  and  profits  from  sixty  farms 
in  a typical  southern  Wisconsin  township  for  the  years  1913  to  1917, 
inclusive. 


Experiments  in  Farming 


73 


Bulletin  301. — Wisconsin  Wins — Annual  Report  of  tlie  Agricultural 
Extension  Service  for  1917-18  (H.  L.  Russell  and  K.  L Platch).  The 
excellent  teamwork  of  all  of  the  state  and  county  agencies  was  respon- 
sible in  a large  measure  for  Wisconsin’s  splendid  record  in  increasing 
production  during  this  eventful  year. 

Bulletin  302. — Service  to  Wisconsin-Annual  Report  of  the  Director 
of  the  Experiment  Station  for  1916-17  and  1917-18  (H.  L.  Russell  and 
F.  B.  Morrison).  A two-year  progress  report  on  the  various  experi- 
ments on  present-day  problems  being  conducted  by  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

Bulletin  303. — Common  Insecticides — Their  Practical  Value  (H.  F. 
Wilson).  The  results  of  laboratory  tests  to  determine  the  killing  effi- 
ciency of  various  insecticides  as  an  aid  to  the  purchase  of  the  best  in- 
secticide to  use  in  preventing  loss  through  insect  damage. 


RESEARCH  BULLETINS 

Research  Bulletin  43. — The  Milling  and  Baking  Qualities  of  Wiscon- 
sin Grown  Wheats  (B.  D.  Leith).  Results  of  tests  to  determine  whether 
wheat  of  good  quality  can  be  grown  in  the  state,  and  to  select  the  best 
varieties  for  milling  and  baking  quality. 

Research  Bulletin  44. — Farm  Tenancy,  An  Analysis  of  the  Occupancy 
of  500  Farms  (C.  J.  Galpin  and  Emily  F.  Hoag).  A survey  of  the  so- 
cial aspects,  especially  the  shifting  of  farm  tenants,  in  the  Sun  Prairie 
community. 

Technical  Articles 

The  following  technical  articles  have  been  prepared  by  members  of 
the  station  staff  for  scientific  associations  or  technical  journals. 

Aust,  F.  A.  Rural  planting  in  Wisconsin.  Ann.  Rpt.  of  the  State  Hort. 
Soc.  1919. 

Cole,  L.  J.  A defect  of  hair  and  teeth  in  cattle — probably  hereditary. 
Jour,  of  Hered.,  10:  303-306.  1919. 

Cole,  L.  J.  and  Lippincott,  W.  A.  The  relation  of  plumage  to  ovarian 
condition  in  a Barred  Plymouth  Rock  pullet.  Biol.  Bui.  .36:  167-182. 
1919. 

Cole,  L.  J.  and  Kelley,  F.  J.  Studies  on  inheritance  in  pigeons  III. 
Description  and  linkage  relations  of  two  sex-linked  characters. 
Genetics  4:  173-203.  1919. 

Daniels,  A.  L.  and  J.  K.  Rich.  The  role  of  the  inorganic  sulfates  in 
nutrition.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  36:  27-32.  1918. 

Daniels,  A.  L.  and  McClurg,  N.  I.  Influence  of  high  temperature  and 
dilute  alkalis  on  the  antieuritic  properties  of  foods.  Jour.  Biol. 
Chem.  37:  201-13.  1919. 

Daniels,  A.  L.  and  English,  H.  A.  A simple  method  of  modifying  the  fat 
content  of  milk  for  infant  feeding.  Amer.  Jour.  Diseases  of  Chil- 
dren. 37:  212-17.  1919. 

Daniels,  A.  L.  and  Heisig,  E.  H.  The  acidity  of  various  syrups  used  in 
cookery.  Jour.  Home  Ec.  11:193-9.  1919. 

Dickson,  J.  G.  The  value  of  certain  nutritive  elements  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  oat  plant.  Am.  Jour.  Bot.  .3:  301-324.  1918. 

Duffee,  F.  W.  Ensilage  cutters.  Hoard’s  Dairyman,  March,  1919.  Hous- 
ing farm  machinery.  Farm  Mechanics,  March,  1919. 

Fluke,  Chas.  L.,  .Tr.  Does  bordeaux  mixture  repel  the  potato  leafhopper? 
Jour.  Ec.  Ent.,  Concord,  N.  H.  12:  256-257.  1919. 


74 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


Fred,  E.  B.  The  effect  of  certain  organic  substances  on  seed  germina- 
tion. Soil  Science  6:  333-349.  1918. 

The  growth  of  higher  plants  in  soils  free  of  micro-organisms. 
Jour.  Gen.  Physiol.  1;  623-629.  1919. 

Fred,  E.  B.  and  Haas,  A.  R.  C.  The  etching  of  marble  by  roots  in  the 
presence  and  absence  of  bacteria.  Jour.  Gen.  Physiol.  1:  631-638. 
1919. 

Haas,  A.  R.  C.  and  Fred,  E.  B.  The  effect  of  soybean  germination  upon 
the  growth  of  its  nodule-forming  bacteria.  Soil  Science  7:  237-245. 
1919. 

Haas,  A.  R.  C.  Colorimetric  determination  of  the  hydrogen  ion  concen- 
tration in  small  quantities  of  solution.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  38:  49-'55. 
1919. 

Hadley,  F.  B.  A new  vaccine  against  contagious  abortion.  Proc.  Wis. 
Vet.  Med.  Assoc.  1919:57-61. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  Steenbock,  H.,  and  Smith,  D.  W.  Studies  of  experimental 
scurvy.  Effect  of  heat  on  the  antiscorbutic  properties  of  som.e  milk 
products.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  38:  305.  1919. 

Hart,  E.  B.  and  Steenbock,  H.,  with  the  cooperation  of  F.  Letcher. 
Maintenance  and  reproduction  value  of  some  protein  mixtures. 
Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  38:  267.  1919. 

Hart,  E.  B.  and  Humphrey,  G.  C.  The  relation  of  the  quality  of  proteins 
to  milk  production  IV,  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  35:  367.  1918. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  Nelson,  V.  E.,  and  Pitz,  W.  Synthetic  capacity  of  the  mam- 
mary gland.  Can  this  gland  synthesize  lysine?  Jour.  Biol.  Chem. 
36:  429.  1918.  , 

Hastings,  E.  G.  Comparative  value  of  quantitative  and  qualitative  bac- 
teriological methods  as  applied  to  milk  with  especial  consideration 
of  the  methylene  blue  reduction  test.  Jour.  Dairy  Sci.  2:  293-311. 
1919. 

Hibbard,  B.  H.  Effect  of  government  control  on  marketing  methods  and 
costs.  Am.  Econ.  Rev.  (Sup.)  March,  1919. 

Hoffer,  G.  N.,  Johnson,  A.  G.,  and  Atanasoff,  D.  Corn-root  rot  and  wheat 
scab.  Jour.  Agr.  Research,  14:  611-612.  1918. 

Johnson,  J.  Fusarium  root-rot  of  tobacco  (Abstract).  Phytopath.  9:3. 
1919. 

The  influence  of  heated  soils  on  seed  germination  and  plant  growth. 
Soil  Science  7:  1-103.  1919, 

The  inheritance  of  branching  habit  in  tobacco.  Genetics  4:  307-340. 
1919. 

An  improved  strain  of  Wisconsin  tobacco,  Connecticut  Havana  No.  38. 
Jour,  of  Heredity  10:  281-288.  1919. 

Johnson,  J.,  and  Milton,  R.  H.  Strains  of  white  hurley  resistant  to  root- 
rot.  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.  Bui.  765:  1-11.  1919. 

Johnson,  J.  and  Hartman,  R.  E.  Influence  of  soil  environment  on  the 
root-rot  of  tobacco.  Jour.  Agr.  Research  17:  41-86.  1919. 

Jones,  E.  R.  Availability  of  drained  marsh  land  for  soldier  settlement. 
Proceedings  of  A.  S.  A.  E.  1919. 

Jones,  L.  R.  Our  journal.  Phytopathology.  Phytopath.  9:  159-164.  1919. 

Krueger,  J.  Conservation  and  the  food  budget.  Jour.  Home  Ec. 
10:363-8.  1918. 

A study  of  the  present  cost  of  food.  Jour.  Home  Econ.  11:  163-6.  1919. 

Livingston,  B.  E.,  and  Tottingham,  W.  E.  The  new  three  salt  nutrient 
solution  for  plant  growth.  Jour.  Bot.  5:  337.  1918. 

Pitz,  W.  Studies  of  experimental  scurvy.  III.  The  influence  of  meat 
and  various  salts  on  the  development  of  scurvy.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem. 
36:  429.  1918. 

Roberts,  R.  R.  “Crinkle”  on  Northwestern  Greening.  Phytopath. 
9:261.  1919. 


Experiments  in  Farming 


75 


Sammis,  J.  L.  An  improvement  in  casein  making.  Jour.  Ind.  and  Eng. 
Chem.  11:  764.  1919. 

Sauve,  E.  C.  The  Wisconsin  farmer’s  trouble  with  tractors.  Farm  Me- 
chanics, Mar,  1919. 

Schindler,  L.  S.,  and  Swenehart,  J.  Buildings  for  the  settler.  Hoard’s 
Dairyman,  December,  1918. 

Somm.er,  H.  H.  and  Hart,  E.  B.  Effect  of  heat  on  the  citric  acid  content 
of  milk.  Isolation  of  citric  acid  from  milk.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem. 
35:  313.  1918. 

Sommer,  H.  H.  Household  foam  test  for  butter  and  oleomargarine. 
Jour.  Dairy  Sci.  11:  105.  1919. 

Steenbock,  H.  Isolation  and  identification  of  stachydrin  from  alfalfa 
hay.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  35:  1.  1918. 

Steenbock,  H.,  Kent,  H.,  and  Gross,  E.  G.  The  dietary  qualities  of  the 
barley.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  35:  61.  1918. 

Steenbock,  H.  Vitam.ines  and  nutrition.  Sci.  Mo.  Aug.  1918,  p.  179. 
Steenbock,  H.,  P.  W.  Boutwell,  and  Kent,  H.  Fat-soluble  vitamine. 
Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  35:  517.  1918. 

Steenbock,  H.  and  Gross,  E.  G.  Creatinuria,  I.  exogenous  origin  of 
urinary  creatine.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  36:  265.  1918. 

Swenehart,  John.  Retail  dynamite  prices.  Wis.  Agr. 

Toole,  E.  H.  and  Tottingham,  W.  E.  The  influence  of  certain  added  salts 
on  the  composition  and  efficiency  of  Knop’s  nutrient  solution.  Amer. 
Jour.  Bot.  5:  452.  1918. 

Tottingham,  W.  E.  Sulphur  requirements  of  the  red  clover  plant. 
Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  36:  429.  1918. 

A preliminary  study  of  the  influence  of  chlorine  on  the  growth  of 
certain  agricultural  plants.  Jour.  Amer.  Soc.  Agron.  11:  1,  1919. 

Truog,  Emil  and  Meacham,  M.  R.  Soil  Acidity  (II) : Its  relation  to  the 
acidity  of  the  plant  juice.  Soil  Science  VIII.  1919. 

Whitson,  A.  R.,  Geib,  W.  J.,  Dunnewald,  T.  J.,  and  Post,  C.  B.  Recon- 
noissance  soil  survey  of  south  part  of  North  Central  Wisconsin. 
Bui.  52A  of  Wis.  Geo.  and  Nat.  Hist.  Survey.  1918. 

Wilson,  H.  F.  Three  new  lachnids  with  comparative  notes  on  three 
others.  Ent.  News.  30:  1—7. 

Some  new  lachnids  of  the  genus  Lachniella.  Canadian  Entomologist. 
51:  18-22,  41-47. 

Wilson,  H.  F.  and  Davis,  J.  J.  A new  genus  and  species  of  aphid 
(Hemiptera  Homoptera).  Ent.  News.  30:  39-40. 


76 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  319 


THE  WISCONSIN  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION,  IN  ACCOUNT 
WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES  APPROPRIATION 


1918-19 

Dr. 

Cr. 

To  receipt  from  treasurer  of  the  United  States  as  per  appro- 
priation for  the  year  ending-  June  30,  1919,  under  the  acts  of 

$30,000.00 

$19,730.50 
3,667.76 
150.15 
106.97 
10.92 
65.61 
1,153  69 
888.17 
233.89 
1,769.34 
186.07 
1,288.65 
12.00 
736.28 

By  labor 

By  publications 

By  postage  and  stationery 

By  freight  and  express 

By  heat,  light,  water,  and  power 

By  chemicals  and  laboratory  supplies 

By  seeds,  plants,  and  sundry  supplies 

By  fertilizers 

By  feeding  stuffs 

By  tools,  machinery,  and  appliances 

By  scientific  apparatus  and  specimens 

By  live  stock 

By  traveling  expenses 

Tol  aL 

$30,000.00 

$30,000.00 

: 


•Av;";vi^  ■;^^  ;■ 

■*'  \vi  • •-'^  ! -■ 


f.  '-’u  ' 
?•'  * • • 

H * 

1-<N  ^.  • 


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^ar  More  Land 


DIGEST 


Improved  machinery  and  methods  have  made  land  clearing  easier,  jj 
The  comparatively  good  prices  of  farm  produce  have  made  it  more  ^ 
profitable  than  ever  before.  Page  3 ] 

Waste  between  stumps  is  costly.  The  stumps  may  occupy  15  per  j 
cent  of  the  land,  besides  causing  much  inconvenience  in  dodging  ; 
them.  Pages  3-5  - 

Binishing  is  the  first  step.  Good  tools  are  essential.  Brushing  \ 
is  followed  by  seeding  to  grass  and  pasturing  or  cutting  hay  until  the  ^ 
fibrous  roots  of  the  stumps  have  decayed  to  make  stumping  easier,  i 
Keep  down  the  sprouts.  - Pages  5-7  ^ 

The  cost  of  stumpmg  varies  with  the  years  since  the  tree  was  cut,  j 
the  kind,  condition  and  size  of  stump,  the  nature  and  wetness  of  the  ii 
soil,  and  the  number  of  stumps  to  the  acre.  Pages  7-13  f 

Explosives  are  essential.  Low  grade  dynamites  are  better  and  j 
cheaper  than  the  high  grades.  Best  results  require  the  j>roper  plac-  i 
ing  and  tamping  of  the  charge.  If  handled  with  reasonable  care,  ex-  ] 
plosives  are  safe.  Pages  14-17  j 

Stump  pullers  are  powerful.  Take-ups  and  other  modern  attach-  ^ 
ments  make  them  more  convenient,  safe  and  efficient.  Grease  and  ] 
care  save  man,  horse  and  machine.  A full  crew  pays.  Large  stumps  \ 
cracked  by  dynamite  are  pulled  easily  with  a puller,  and  the  earth  is  » 
left  in  the  hole.  Pages  17-21  j 

Piling  stumps  properly  for  burning  is  as  important  as  their  remov-  1 
al  from  the  ground.  Upright  piles  burn  best.  Small  stumps  and  ■ 
those  well  split  with  explosives  may  be  heaped  in  small  piles  by  hand.  ^ 
The  larger  stumps  that  are  not  split  require  a power  piler  like  the  ^ 
home-made  Conrath  piler.  Any  blacksmith  can  make  the  irons  from 
the  specifications  given  in  this  bulletin.  Pages  2 2-27  | 


Clear  More  Land 


John  Swenehart 

Farm  land  can  be  cleared  now  with  comparatively  less  ex- 
pense than  ever  before  yet  farm  products  and  developed  land 
bring  high  prices.  The  cut-over  lands  of  northern  Wisconsin, 
therefore,  offer  a good  opportunity  for  the  new  farmer.  The 
products  of  the  farm  in  every  case,  whether  they  are  the  com- 
mon farm  crops  such  as  butter,  eggs,  and  potatoes,  or  whether 
they  are  the  wood  products  of  the  new  farm,  will  all  buy  more 
land-clearing  material  now  than  formerly.  This  is  because  none 
of  the  materials  and  equipment  needed  for  land  clearing  has 
risen  in  price  to  correspond  with  farm  products.  It  is  also 
due  to  the  better  selection  and  use  of  these  materials  and  to  the 
organization  of  communities  to  purchase  without  waste.  The 
man  who  has  to  hire  his  labor  will  not  be  able  to  do  any  better 
than  formerly,  but  in  northern  Wisconsin  most  of  the  clearing 
is  done  by  the  man  who  owns  the  land.  His  own  day’s  work 
will  do  just  as  much  now  as  it  did  five  or  more  years  ago;  and 
he  can  buy  his  dynamite  and  other  land  clearing  materials  for 
fewer  days  of  labor  and  for  less  farm  products  then  formerly. 

Waste  Between  Stumps  Costly 

The  waste  of  land  between  the  stumps  is  strikingly  shown 
by  the  data  in  Table  1.  In  this  case  the  area  of  land  around 
the  stump  which  cannot  be  used  was  actually  measured  and 
the  area  computed  on  an  area  of  ten  acres.  The  number  of 
stumps  on  each  acre  was  large  in  this  case  because  they  were 
hardwood,  but  white  pine  stumps  would  make  up  in  size  for 
what  they  might  lack  in  number.  On  a white  pine  field,  the 
ground  actually  measured  around  stumps  reduced  the  1920  po- 
tato crop  by  more  than  one  bushel  of  potatoes  per  stump.  That 
is,  the  hills  were  actually  missing  in  the  potato  field  even 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  320 


TIG.  1.— HARD  CLEARING 

Straggling'  trees,  down  logs,  tree  tops,  and  brush  make  a bad  combination.  The  land 
in  the  foreground  was  stumped  at  a hligh  cost  because  the  hardwood  stumps  were 
green. 


PIG.  2.— MAKE  HASTE  SLOWLY  WITH  GREEN  STUMPS 

Deep  holes  are  left  when  green  stumps  are'  pulled  because  the  fine  roots  hold  consid- 
erable soil.  It  is  better  to  wait  several  years  after  brushing  before  pulling  stumps. 


Clear  More  Land 


5 


though  the  planting  and  cultivating  had  been  carefully  done. 
Under  present  conditions  such  a waste  of  land  in  our  culti- 
vated fields  is  poor  practice. 


Table  1. — Area  Occupied  by  Stumps 


Plot  No. 

Number  of 
Stumps 

Sq.  Ft.  Wasted 

9 

250 

12,629 

3 * 

269 

10,553 

4 

242 

11.132 

8 

266 

10,013 

12 A 

281 

10,968 

Total 

1308 

55,275 

Note:  In  a 10-acre  field,  1.27  acres  (55,275  sq.  ft.)  was  actu- 

ally occupied  by  stumps.  That  is,  12.7  per  cent  of  the  land  and 
crop  was  wasted  in  addition  to  the  labor  of  dodging  stumps. 

Brushing  Comes  First 

Brushing  is  the  first  step  in  the  clearing  of  land.  This 
usually  includes  picking  up  old  logs  which  have  been  left  by 
the  logger  or  which  remain  as  wind  falls  in  the  timber.  The 
labor  necessary  to  brush  land  varies  considerably.  Observa- 
tion of  several  hundred  farms  in  connection  with  land  clearing 
contests  indicates  that  it  takes  from  one  to  ten  days  to  brush 
and  log  an  acre.  This  varies  with  the  skill  of  the  man  at  that 
particular  work.  Where  piling  heavy  logs  is  necessary  the 
time  needed  also  varies  with  the  equipment.  No  average  figure 
can  be  given  as  there  may  be  much  variation  even  on  any  one 
forty.  A man  may  be  able  to  brush  three  acres  in  a week  on 
one  side  of  his  farm  but  it  may  take  him  as  long  to  brush  one 
acre  on  another  part. 


Use  Good  Tools 

The  land  clearing  equipment  needed  at  first  on  the  new  farm 
is  not  extensive.  The  tools  should  be  well  chosen,  however,  and 
of  best  quality.  A good  double-bit  axe,  bush  scythe  and  cross- 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  320 


FIG.  s.-nDRiviNG  BAR  AND  TEN  POUND  needud.  Often  much  nnnec- 

SLEDGE  - . T 

These  make  holes  rapidly  and  easily  for  GSSRry  WOrk  IS  done  USmg  8. 
the  charges  under  stumps. 

Economical  results  with  the  brushing  demand  consideration 
of  the  kinds  of  brush  to  be  met.  Basswood  sprouts  out  from 
the  roots  almost  continuously,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  keep 
these  sprouts  down.  Brush  of  this  type  can  be  subdued  only 
by  cutting  in  the  late  summer,  usually  during  August.  Poplar, 
maple  and  some  other  sprouts  may  be  cut  effectively  at  any 
season,  if  cut  close  and  the  land  seeded  to  grass.  Pasturing 
for  one  or  two  years  is  a good  plan  but  is  ineffective  unless  the 


cut  saw  are  the  most  important.  To  these  may  be  added  a brush 
axe,  or  so-called  brush  hook.  In  some  cases  a hook-shaped 
knife  fitted  on  a scythe  snath  is  used.  A team  of  horses  is 
seldom  needed  the  first  season  on  the  new  farm,  unless  the  man 

has  enough  money  to  get 
considerable  land  into  crop 
at  once.  The  cost  of  feed  and 
the  little  work  the  team  will 
have  to  do  usually  make  it 
cheaper  and  better  to  hire 
this  work  the  first  year  at 
least.  With  the  team,  a well 
made  set  of  double  trees  is 
needed.  It  is  best  to  have 
this  set  made  by  a good  black- 
smith who  knows  how  to 
strengthen  the  evener  pro- 
perly and  how  to  attach  the 
necessary  hook  which  is 
handy  in  skidding  together 
the  logs  and  down  stuff.  A 
good  skidding  chain  not  over 
% inch  in  size  (preferably 
5/16  inch),  13-15  feet  in 
length,  with  a grab  hook  on 
one  end  and  a so-called  round 
hook  on  the  other  end  will  be 


Clear  More  Land 


7 


land  is  seeded  down  to  grass  or  else  plowed  and  used  for  other 
crops  directly  after  pasturing.  Many  mistakes  have  been 
made  in  thinking  that  sheep  will  kill  brush.  This  is  true  if 
some  other  plant  is  put  on  the  land  in  place  of  the  brush.  , If 
this  is  not  done  the  pastur- 
ing will  cause  several  sprouts 
to  grow  where  one  grew  be- 
fore. 

Stump  Eemoval 

‘‘What  is  the  cost  of  re- 
moving stumps?’’  is  the 
question  most  frequently 
asked  men  familiar  with  cut- 
over land.  An  answer  is  al- 
most impossible  to  give  be- 
cause of  the  many  important 
variations  which  occur.  For 
any  given  set  of  conditions 
it  is  possible  to  recommend  a 
method  and  to  estimate  with 
reasonable  accuracy  the  prob- 
able cost,  providing  the  con- 
ditions remain  constant.  The 
practical  man  studies  first  the 
conditions  which  may  cause 
change  in  either  cost  or 
method.  Then  he  decides 
upon  the  method  and  esti- 
mates the  cost.  Important  variations  affecting  the  methods  to 
be  used  in  economical  stump  removal  must  be  clearly  under- 
stood if  the  best  method  is  to  be  found. 


FTG.  4.— DRIVING  THE  BAR  WITH  THE 
SLEDGE 

A good  method  of  loosening  the  bar  by 
battering  on  the  side. 


hours  ZO  30  ^0  50  60  70  dO  90  WO  HO  120 


HO  ISO  160  170 


Farms 


Each  Cinue-fffPfl£3£rrr3  a FA/?/yr 

FIG.  5.— TIME  IS  MONET  IN  LAND  CLEARING 

On  21  farms  where  records  were  kept  an  acre  of  cleared  land  cost  from  30  to  70 
hours’  labor.  Eight  settlers  spent  more  than  70  hours;  three  less  than  30  hours. 


8 Wisconsin  Bulletin  320 

Common  Varieties  of  Stumps 

White  pine  stumps  have  in  the  roots  and  other  parts  of  the 
stump  a large  quantity  of  resinous  material  which  preserves 
the  wood  and  prevents  the  decay  which  occurs  rapidly  with 
most  hardwood  varieties.  The  same  is  true  to  some  extent 
with  Norway  and  Jack  pine. 

White  pine  has  a so-called  lateral  root  system  in  that  the 
roots  spread  out  and  do  not  go  deep  into  the  ground.  Norway 


FIG.  6.— EXPLOSIVE  IS  NEEDED  HEBE  WHETHER  PULLER  IS  USED  OR  NOT 

A white  pine  stump  26  years  old  and  still  solid.  It  will  still  be  solid  at  50  years. 

It  is  better  not  to  wait  any  longer  before  pulling. 

pine  and  Jack  pine,  on  the  other  hand,  have  a long,  central,  so- 
called  tap  root  growing  straight  down  into  the  ground  with 
only  a few  roots  going  out  near  the  surface.  Obviously  the 
method  of  handling  depends  on  the  type  of  root  system  the 
stump  has.  Oak  and  basswood,  commonly  found  in  northern 
Wisconsin,  sprout  out  readily  after  the  tree  is  cut  and  there- 
fore remain  alive  a long  time  even  though  the  roots  do  not  con- 
tain resinous  materials  to  prevent  decay.  The  growing  of 
sprouts  keeps  the  stump  more  or  less  green  and  it  will  die  only 
when  these  sprouts  are  constantly  kept  down,  or  when  cut  at 
just  the  right  time  in  the  late  summer.  Both  basswood  and 
oak  stumps  have  a deeper  root  system  than  most  of  the  other 


Clear  More  Land 


9 


hardwoods.  Hemlock  is  classified  among  hardwoods  with  a 
lateral  root  system  and  with  no  resinous  material  to  prevent  de- 
cay. 

Years  Since  Tree  Was  Cut 

Green  stumps,  or  stumps  where  the  timber  has  been  cut  only 
one  or  two  or  three  years,  are  usually  not  removed  economically 
because  of  the  extensive  fibrous  root  systems  which  hold  the  soil 
and  make  the  stump  difficult  to  handle  after  it  is  taken  from  the 


FIG.  7.— THE  STUMP  FENCE  IS  BOTH  IMPRACTICAL  AND  UNSIGHTLY 

It  harbors  injurious  insects,  plant  diseases,  and  weeds.  If  stumps  are  needed  for  fuel, 
heap  them  in  high,  straight  piles. 

ground.  Unless  these  stumps  are  small  or  few  to  the  acre  and 
very  much  in  the  way,  it  is  better  to  postpone  the  removal  un- 
til the  fine  roots  have  had  a chance  to  decay.  Most  of  the 
area  now  being  cleared  in  Wisconsin,  however,  has  been  cut  for 
several  years  and  the  regular  hardwood  stumps  left  by  the 
lumbermen  are  ready  to  clear  as  soon  as  the  brush  and  down  logs 
can  be  removed.  White  pine  do  not  decay  much  after  10  or  12 
years  so  that  delay  in  stumping  will  not  be  of  any  particular 
use.  Burning  tops  is  a bad  practice  as  it  tends  to  destroy  the 
top  of  the  stump,  thus  leaviug  so-called  ‘‘blinds.”  The  roots 
still  solid  are  in  the  way  and  the  stump  takes  up  as  much  room 
as  ever.  With  green  stumps  it  is  best  to  brush  and  log  first, 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  320 


seeding  down  the  grass.  Then  cnt  hay  between  the  stumps  for  a 
few  years,  keep  down  the  sprouts  and  do  the  stumping  work  . 
when  the  stump  is  in  proper  condition.  On  hardwoods  this 
will  vary  from  five  to  eight  years.  Usually  in  the  case  of  small 
second  growth  trees,  one  to  three  years  will  be  time  enough  for 
them  to  rot  so  that  removal  will  be  fairly  easy.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  with  poplar  trees. 


FIG.  8.— EASY  TO  HANDLE  AFTER  PULLING 

If  a light  load  of  dynamite  is  used,  the  large  stumps  are  split  so  that  they  can  be 
pulled  easily  with  a puller  and  then  piled. 

Variations  With  Soil  Types 

A variation  in  the  type  of  soil  has  much  to  do  with  the  diffi- 
culty of  removing  stumps.  Clay  soil  sticks  firmly  to  the  stump 
and  makes  it  hard  to  handle  and  almost  impossible  to  bum  if 
the  stump  is  pulled  by  a slow-moving  pulling  outfit.  This  is 
particularly  tme  of  the  Superior  red  clay  and  the  heavy  silt 
loams,  with  the  white  pine  stumps  or  hardwood  stumps  which 
have  not  decayed  enough.  The  soil  modifies  the  nature  of  root 
growth.  For  instance,  a white  pine  on  a flat  heavy  soil  grows 


Clear  More  Land 


11 


with  a very  shallow  lateral  root  system.  The  same  kind  of 
tree  on  a light  sandy  soil  has  a more  extensive  root  system  and 
the  roots  grow  much  deeper  in  order  to  get  moisture  which  is  not 
so  plentiful  in  the  sandy  soil.  This  makes  the  stump  harder  to 
remove.  The  type  of  soil  may  seriously  affect  the  efficiency  of 
explosives  and  machinery.  For  instance,  the  heavier  soils  pre- 
vent the  easy  escape  of  gases  from  an  explosive  and  therefore 


FIG.  9.— EFFEOT  OF  A LARGE  AMOUNT  OP  DYNAMITE 

The  stumps  are  blasted  into  small  pieces  which  may  be  heaped  in  small  piles  quickly 

and  easily. 

permit  the  explosive  to  do  good  work  on  the  stump.  A light 
soil  permits  easy  escape  of  the  explosive  gases  and  therefore  the 
maximum  action  on  the  stump  is  not  obtained.  The  nature 
of  soil  also  may  have  much  to  do  with  the  ease  with  which 
charges  may  be  loaded  for  blasting.  A man  may  be  able  to 
make  100  holes  in  a loam  easier  than  he  could  make  one-half 
the  number  in  clay. 

Count  the  Stumps 

The  number  of  stumps  per  acre  is  an  important  factor  in  that 
there  is  more  work  where  there  are  50  stumps  per  acre  than 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  320 


where  there  are  but  30.  In  addition,  the  number  per  acre  may 
determine  the  equipment  which  is  most  usable.  If  there  are 
only  a few  stumps  per  acre  it  may  be  best  not  to  await  further 
decay  of  the  stumps.  It  will  probably  be  cheaper  to  get  them 
out  at  once  and  have  a clear  field.  It  is  seldom  desirable  to 
use  a capstan  type  of  stump  puller  in  clearing  land  where  there 
are  only  a few  stumps  per  acre  because  it  has  to  be  set  up  too 
often  and  the  cable  must  be  carried  long  distances  from  stump 
to  stump.  There  should  be  30  to  40  stumps  or  more  per  acre 
if  a stump  puller  is  to  show  the  best  results.  Where  the  num- 
ber is  less  than  this  it  usually  pays  better  to  use  dynamite  only 
and  save  the  cost  of  the  puller.  The  size  of  stump  is  very 
important  as  the  larger  the  stump  the  more  explosive  will  be 
needed  and  the  longer  should  be  the  delay  in  the  case  of  hard- 
wood to  permit  rotting. 

Moisture 

Moisture  affects  the  efficiency  of  equipment  and  materials. 
Under  light  soil  conditions  when  plenty  of  moisture  is  present, 
dynamite  may  be  used  effectively.  When  the  same  soil  is  dry, 
dynamite  may  be  ineffective.  On  medium  and  heavy  soils, 
when  much  moisture  is  present,  the  stump  puller  usually  can- 
not be  used  with  advantage.  The  stump  puller  may  be  used 
efficiently  on  these  soils,  particularly  the  medium  soil,  when  dry. 

Previous  Treatment 

The  previous  treatment  of  land  may  have  much  to  do  with 
the  cost  of  land  clearing  work  or  the  method  which  is  to  be 
used.  One  field  under  observation  was  heavily  pastured.  The 
stumps  were  white  pine  cut  between  20  and  30  years  ago.  The 
tops  were  solid  but  the  roots  were  well  decayed.  Stumps  were 
pulled  and  blasted  easily.  On  another  field  in  the  same  vicin- 
ity the  white  pine  stumps,  cut  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same 
kind  of  soil,  were  left  in  the  brush.  The  growing  brush  had 
retarded  the  decay  of  stump  roots  so  that  they  were  harder  to 
remove.  The  pasturing  or  cultivation  of  land  between  the 
stumps  hastens  the  decay  of  both  roots  and  tops.  On  stump 
lands  which  have  been  pastured,  especially  when  they  are  some- 


Clear  More  Land 


13 


what  wet,  the  tendency  is  for  frost  action  to  heave  the  stump 
more  or  less  so  that  in  time  the  superficial  lateral  roots  are 
brought  nearer  the  surface.  This  shows  the  desirability  of 
seeding  down  the  ground  as  soon  as  it  has  been  brushed  so  that 
it  can  be  either  pastured  or  a hay  crop  taken  off. 


FIG.  10.— YOUR  LABOR  BUYS  TWICE  THE  DYNAMITE  IT  DID  IN  1910 

Two  days’  labor  in  1910-14  bought  only  22  pounds  of  dynamite;  in  1920  the  same  labor 

buys  51  pounds. 


Use  Low  Grade  Dynamite 

One  of  the  first  important  things  that  the  Wisconsin  investi- 
gations showed  was  that  so-called  low-grade  dynamites  had 
many  advantages.  This  has  been  further  verified  by  field  ex- 
perience. More  than  half  of  the  dynamite  now  used  in  north- 
ern Wisconsin  for  stump  removal  is  of  the  20  per  cent  grade. 
These  low-grade  dynamites  furnish  a greater  ‘‘lift”  on  the 
stump  than  does  the  high-grade  dynamite  per  dollar  invested. 
This  means  that  a dollar’s  worth  of  20  per  cent  ammonia  dyna- 


14 


Wisconsin  Bullehn  320 


mite  will  give  much  more  “lift’^  than  a dollar’s  worth  of 
higher  grades.  It  was  really  not  the  grade  of  dynamite  but 
the  improper  way  it  was  used  that  kept  the  belief  that  quicker 
djTiamites  were  necessary.  It  has  now  been  proven  that  on  al- 
most any  soil  which  is  suitable  for  farming  use,  the  lower  grades 
of  dynamite  will  give  the  more  economical  results. 


Table  II Comparative  Cost  op  Stump  Removal  by  Dynamite 

IN  Dry  and  Wet  Soils 


No.  of 
stumps 

Lbs.  of 
dyna- 
mite 

No.  of 
caps 

Hours 

labor 

Cost  per  stump— cents 

Dyn. 

Caps 

Labor  j 

Total 

Dryt 

1 

A.ug.  6-7 

75 

133.75 

123 

39 

28.53 

13.12 

13 

54.65 

Wet 

1 

Oct.26 

102 

99.5 

112 

46.5 

15.6 

8.78 

11.4  i 

1 

35.78 

t8.03  inches  of  rain  fell  between  dates. 


Moisture  Helps  Explosives 

A study  of  the  conditions  under  which  explosives  give  best 
results  indicates  that  moisture  is  an  important  factor.  From 
the  data  indicated  in  Table  II  the  work  of  blasting  stumps 
should  not  be  done  in  the  summer  or  in  the  fall  unless  much 
rain  falls  before  this  work  is  done  in  the  fall.  There  is  sel- 
dom enough  moisture  in  the  soil  for  effective  work  in  the  sum- 
mer months.  One  pound  of  dynamite  in  spring  will  do  the 
work  of  1Y2  to  2 pounds  used  in  the  summer.  It  is  best  that 
the  work  be  planned  so  that  the  explosive  is  used  at  the  time 
when  it  is  most  effective. 


Table  III. — Mechanical  Advantage  of  Puller 


Sweep  Length 

Pounds  of  power  in  the  cable  for  each  pound  of  pull 
on  the  sweep 

Feet 

8"  Drum 

9"  Drum 

10"  Drum 

12"  Drum 

9 

27 

24 

22 

18 

10 

30 

27 

24 

20 

11 

33 

30 

27 

22 

12 

36 

32 

30 

24 

Clear  More  Land 


15 


Tools 

Without  proper  tools,  an  effective  use  of  explosive  is  impos- 
sible. A driving  iron  4 or  4%  feet  long  is  made  of  IV2  iiieh 
octagonal  (eight  sided)  tool  steel  with  a six  inch  pencil  point  on 
the  end.  This  can  be  driven  into  the  soil  under  the  stump 
with  a 10  pound  double  faced  hammer  and  then  pulled  out  af- 
ter battering  on  side  with  hammer.  Except  in  heaviest  clays 


FIG.  11.— ROOT  PLOW  GETS  STUBBORN  STUMPS 

This  is  a good  tool  to  use  for  stumps  when  the  tops  are  gone.  The  plow  should  not 

be  too  heavy. 

these  tools  make  holes  for  charges  most  quickly  and  easily.  A 
two  inch  auger  will  be  useful  in  these  heavy  clays  and  for  deep 
holes.  A tamp  stick  long  enough  to  reach  the  bottom  of  the 
deepest  hole  is  essential. 

Tamping  earth  in  the  hole  after  the  charge  is  placed  is  the 
biggest  factor  in  stump  blasting.  Improper  and  careless  tamp- 
ing wastes  dynamite  and  time.  Damp  clay  is  the  best  material 
for  tamping,  but  any  soil  used  should  be  made  as  firm  as  the 
surrounding  soil.  All  pressure  from  the  explosive  escaping 
through  an  improperly  tamped  hole  is  wasted.  About  four 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  320 


inches  of  earth  should  be  firmly  pressed  on  top  of  the  charge. 
Crumbled  soil  (not  lumps)  should  then  be  rammed  tightly  with 
a wooden  tamping  stick  all  the  way  to  the  top  of  the  hole. 

A good  cap  crimper — the  best  is  cheapest — should  be  tied 
to  every  dynamite-carrying  box.  Proper  placing  of  the  cap 
in  the  charge  means  better  work  and  less  waste  explosive. 


FIG.  12.— PLACING  THE  CHARGE 

Upper  left;  cap.  and  fuse  method  of  loading  under  a solid,  firm,  evenly  rooted 
stump.  Upper  right:  top-rooted  or  hollow  stump  with  roots  rotted  away  on  one 
side.  Lower;  separated  roots  of  a top-rotted  stump.  Dotted  lines  show  the  direction 
of  the  explosive  force.  Electric  cap  could  he  used  in  each  case. 


Safety 

Since  Wisconsin  has  passed  the  3 million  pound  annual  mark 
in  the  use  of  explosives  for  farming  and  the  quantity  is  still 
steadily  increasing,  the  matter  of  safety  is  important.  Low- 
grade  dynamites  are  now  about  as  near  “fool-proof’’  as  ex- 
plosives can  be.  Almost  all  danger  can  be  avoided  by  the  use 
of  electric  blasting.  The  charge  is  fired  when  the  lever  is  oper- 
ated and  not  until  then.  Furthermore,  the  blind,  where  the 


Clear  More  Land 


17 


top  is  rotted  or  burned  away,  can  be  removed  by  charges 
placed  under  each  holding  part  and  all  fired  at  once.  The  re- 
sult is  effective  because  no  dynamite  is  wasted  and  the  hole  is 
shallow.  The  caps  cost  a little  more,  but  safety,  convenience 
and  efficiency  more  than  pay  for  the  extra  cost,  just  as  the  self 
binder  justifies  a greater  cost  than  the  old  reaping  machine. 

Stump  Pullers  Are  Powerful 

Much  has  been  said  for  and  against  the  use  of  stump  pul- 
lers, but  it  is  still  true  that  a stump  puller  will  give  good  results 
when  used  under  the  conditions  for  which  it  is  made.  On  pine 
stumps  in  medium  and  light  soils,  a stump  puller  used  with  the 
necessary  dynamite  to  crack  the  stump  for  handling,  is  most 
desirable.  On  heavy  clay  soil,  particularly  when  wet,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  a stump  puller  of  any  kind  is  desirable.  It 
is  only  when  the  operator  uses  the  best  of  judgment  that  he 
gets  any  results  at  all. 

The  capstan  type  of  horse-power  stump  puller  is  usually  best. 
Tripod  pullers  and  one-man  outfits  of  various  kinds  may  be 
desirable  for  special  conditions.  The  one-man  outfits  have  ad- 
vantages where  the  stumps  are  not  too  large  or  where  the 
stumps  are  on  low  ground  where  teams  cannot  work  conven- 
iently. The  tripod  puller  is  of  greatest  use  where  the  stumps 
are  few  to  the  acre.  With  any  of  these  pulling  devices,  the 
pull  is  slow  because  the  comparatively  small  strength  of  a man 
or  horse  has  to  be  applied  to  a mechanical  device  to  get  the 
added  strength  for  pulling.  The  increased  power  is  got  by  a 
reduced  speed. 

On  the  heavier  lands  much  soil  is  often  pulled  up  with  the 
stump.  This  requires  the  use  of  more  or  less  explosive  with 
the  stump  puller  to . split  the  stump  either  before  or  after 
pulling  if  it  is  large.  Generally,  better  results  follow  the  use 
of  dynamite  before  pulling,  as  loading  is  easier  and  the  strain 
on  horses  is  avoided. 

Get  the  Latest  Puller  Equipment 

Stump  puller  equipment  is  now  fairly  well  standardized  and 
the  complete  outfits  are  commonly  sold.  Special  conditions  may 
require  some  variation  from  these  standards. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  320 


The  puller  is  usually  sold  with  about  100  feet  of  main-line 
cable  with  what  is  known  as  a closed  socket  on  the  outer  end 
for  attaching  additional  lengths  of  cable.  Wisconsin  conditions 
seem  to  require  equipment  of  a size  to  go  with  % inch  main 
pulling  cable.  Where  heavier  cable  than  this  would  be  needed, 
use  more  dynamite.  This  cable  is  lower  in  price  and  more 
easily  handled  than  larger  sizes. 


FIG.  13.— A CLOSED  SOCKET 

Such  a socket  on  the  end  of  the  main  line  permits  easy  extension  of  the  working 
distance  of  the  machine.  By  using  an  additional  cable  fitted  with  an  open  socket. 
50  feet  or  more  may  be  added. 

Two  general  plans  are  used  in  attaching  the  sweeps.  The 
sweep  braced  with  a truss  is  usually  not  adjustable  in  length, 
because  securely  fastened  on  the  machine.  The  trussed  sweep 
usually  runs  more  freely  and  without  a counter-balance.  The 
other  type  of  sweep  can  be  moved  in  its  socket  and  extended  for 
use  with  one  horse  or  with  a team.  Read  directions  carefully 
where  the  adjustable  type  is  used  to  be  sure  that  the  sweep  is 
not  too  long  for  the  strength  of  the  cable.  Table  III  shows  the 
approximate  advantage  gained  using  a given  length  of  sweep 
and  size  of  drum.  A team  weighing  3000  pounds  can  pull  about 
50  per  cent,  or  1500  pounds,  on  the  end  of  the  sweep  by  strain- 
ing. At  a slow  walk  the  team  pulls  only  15  to  20  per  cent  of 
its  weight.  The  % inch  cable  will  stand  only  18  to  20  tons  in 
actual  practice,  although  it  has  a breaking  strength  when  new 
of  from  23  to  26  tons,  depending  on  the  quality. 

An  anchor  line  long  enough  to  permit  driving  the  team  be- 
tween the  anchor  stump  and  the  machine  in  operation  is  help- 
ful. 


Clear  More  Land 


19 


One  or  two  automatic  take-ups  (cam  or  sliding  disc  types)  are 
essential.  The  take-up  permits  the  hooking  of  a stump  to 
the  main  line  at  any  point  without  filling  the  drum  with  cable. 
Otherwise  it  would  be  necessary  to  reel  in  the  entire  100  feet  of 
cable  on  the  drum  in  order  to  pull  the  stump  close  to  the  ma- 
chine. These  take-ups  are  usually  fitted  with  a short  piece  of 
cable  and  a hook  to  act  as  a choker  to  go  around  the  stump.  Two 
of  these  take-ups  are  desired  if  the  machine  it  to  be  run  to  full 
capacity.  Old  style  take-ups  are  a nuisance.  The  new  types 


MG.  14.— A MODERN  TAKE-UP 

TTils  permits  the  pull  to  start  on  the  stump  without  winding  up  all  the  slack  cable 

in  the  drum. 

may  often  more  than  double  puller  efficiency.  Only  one  or  two 
types  of  pullers  are  so  made  that  a take-up  is  not  necessary. 

One  or  two  power  pulleys  fitted  with  short  choker  cable  and 
hooks  will  often  get  the  stump  which  is  just  a little  too  heavy 
for  straight  pull.  They  also  will  permit  pulling  stumps  close  to 
the  machine  or  in  other  inaccessible  places  where  the  pull  must 
be  reversed.  A root  plow  weighing  from  60  to  70  pounds  is 
strong  enough  to  get  out  snags  and  roots  where  the  tops  have 
been  pulled,  rotted,  or  burned  off. 

One  or  more  50  foot  lengths  of  extension  cable  of  the  same 
size  as  that  attached  to  the  drum  of  the  puller — fitted  with 
an  open  socket  to  permit  attachment  to  the  main  line — will 
increase  the  area  which  can  be  cleared  from  a given  set-up  and 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  320 


should  be  a part  of  a complete  equipment.  A crowbar  and  a 
mattock  (commonly  called  a grub  hoe  in  Wisconsin)  are  handy 
about  the  machine  and  are  needed  in  the  land  clearing  busi- 
ness and  on  the  farm.  When  many  small  stumps  are  to  be 


FIG.  15. -GREASE  ON  THE  PULLER  WILL  SAVE  MAN.  HORSE  AND  MACHINE 


pulled  with  this  outfit,  a so-called  cluster  cable  may  be  made  by 
attaching  three  pieces  of  cable  to  a ring,  thus  permitting  the 
pull  on  three  stumps  at  the  same  time. 

With  this  equipment  and  a crew  of  three  men,  a team,  and 
some  explosive,  excellent  work  can  be  done  on  pine  stumps  in 
medium  and  in  light  soils.  A good  piler  completes  the  equip- 
ment. 


Clear  More  Land 


21 


Oil  and  grease  will  save  labor  of  both  man  and  horse  on  the 
stump  puller  as  well  as  on  any  other  piece  of  machinery.  They 
also  prolong  the  life  of  the  machine.  It  is  unwise  to  leave  valu- 
able cable  out  in  the  weather  where  it  rusts  quickly  and  loses 


FIG.  16.— HOW  THE  RATCHET  DOG  WORKS 

This  dog,  or  paul,  drops  into  notches  in  the  rim  of  the  drum  and  hohis  the  pull  as 
the  team  winds  in  the  cable.  If  this  is  not  working,  the  stump  puller  is  danger- 
ous. 

strength.  The  steel  cable  used  on  the  stump  puller  is  made 
with  a hemp  center.  This  hemp  center  helps  lubricate  the 
cable.  Whenever  the  cable  is  put  away  it  should  be  carefully 
greased  with  any  heavy  axle  grease  or  similar  oil. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  320 


Clean  Stumps  As  They  Come  Out 

In  using  the  stump  puller  it  is  frequently  desirable  to  knock 
off  the  soil  from  the  roots  of  the  stump  with  a grub  hoe  just  as 
the  stump  is  coming  out.  This  keeps  the  soil  in  the  hole  where 
it  belongs  and  makes  the  stump  more  easily  handled. 

A Full  Crew  Pays 

Cooperation  among  neighbors  is  also  important  where  a stump 
puller  is  used.  The*  most  effective  work  can  be  done  with  a 
crew  of  about  three  men  and  a team,  so  that  it  is  desirable  for 
a farmer  to  exchange  labor  with  his  neighbor  if  he  has  not  a 
large  enough  crew  otherwise.  Three  men  working  together 
under  good  conditions  on  a stump  puller  will  do  much  more 
work  than  the  same  three  men  working  separately  on  their  own 
farms.  It  is  better  to  have  the  three  work  a few  days  for  each 
one.  Even  the  stump  puller  may  be  owned  jointly  by  the 
three,  thus  affording  better  equipment  at  lower  cost. 

Horse  Power  Piler 

One  of  the  first  difficulties  met  in  clearing  the  new  fairni  is 
that  of  getting  rid  of  the  down  logs,  “rampikes,”  and  stumps 
that  have  been  pulled  or  blasted.  Disposing  of  the  stumps 
often  costs  much  more  than  removing  them  from  the  ground. 
This  emphasized  the  need  for  some  kind  of  a piling  outfit  which 
the  average  farmer  can  afford  and  which  can  l?e  run  with  a 
minimum  of  outside  labor  and  power.  The  Conrath  piler,  a 
home-made  device  worked  out  by  Charles  and  Frank  Conrath 
near  Ladysmith,  Wisconsin,  is  the  best  of  its  kind  thus  far.  The 
drawing  will  enable  any  handy  man  to  make  one  for  himself. 
Sketches  will  be  furnished  upon  application  to  the  Agricultural 
Engineering  Department  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  The 
trip  for  releasing  the  stump  or  log  on  the  pile  is  an  essential 
part  of  the  equipment.  This  was  developed  by  Mr.  Frost,  a 
neighbor  of  the  Conraths,  and  is  known  as  the  Frost  trip, 
although  improved  by  various  men  interested  in  the  develop- 


Clear  More  Land 


23 


6 


This  device  saves  backaches  and  piles  up  the  big  stumps  efficiently. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  320 


ment  of  the  cut-over  territory.  These  devices  can  be  made 
easily  in  any  community  so  that  a few  neighbors  can  get  out 
the  necessary  timbers  and  own  one  of  these  “backache  savers 
themselves.  This  is  another  place  where  the  cooperation  of 
three  or  four  good  men  will  make  the  work  of  clearing  land 


Make  this  device  yourself  or  get  your  blacksmith  to  do  it.  There  are  no  patents 

to  prevent  you. 

much  easier.  With  this  piler  is  needed  good  log  chains  for  skid- 
ding. Crowbars  and  the  usual  tools  are  handy  about  the  piler. 
The  piling  outfit  will  often  be  particularly  useful  in  getting  rid 
of  the  down  logs,  wind  falls,  etc.  Logs  and  stumps  should  not 
be  piled  together.  Logs  should  be  put  on  “skids’^  or  cross 
poles.  Piles  should  be  high  and  compact. 


Clear  More  Land 


25 


Table  H . — Methods  and  Equipment  for  Pulling  Different  Kinds  of  Stumps 


Kind  of 
stump 

Roots 

Years 

since 

cutting' 

tree 

I Soil 

Mois- 

ture 

Eauipment 

Methods  suggested 

iVhite  pine 

Lateral 

1 to  10 
years 

Heavy 

or 

light 

Wet 

or 

dry 

Pasture  and  hay  till  fine 
j'oots  deca.v  unless  only 
few  to  acre. 

10  years 

1 Heavy 

1 

Wet 
or 
d ry 

1 

Explosive,  teams. 

Blast  completely.  Make 
small  hand  piles. 

Light 

Wet 

Puller,  teams, 
piler,  explosive. 

Blast  large  stumps.  Pull 
and  pile. 

Light 

Dry 

Puller,  teams, 
piler,  explosive. 

Explosives  less  effective. 
Puller  and  piler  work 
well. 

Norway 

and 

Jack 

pines 

Tap 

1 to  5 
years 

Light 

Wet 

or 

dry 

Pasture  and  hay  till  fine 
roots  decay. 

5 years 

Light 

Wet 

Puller,  teams.  I 

piler,  explosive,  j 

Blast  as  needed.  Pull 
and  pile. 

5 years 

Light 

Dry 

Puller,  teams, 
piler,  explosive. 

Explosives  less  effective 
in  light.dry  .soil. 

Hemlock 

Lateral 

1 to  4 
years 

Heavy 

or 

medium 

Wet 

or 

dry 

' 

Delay  stumping  till  fine 
roots  decay. 

5 years 

Heavy 

or 

medium 

Wet 

Team,  explosive. 

Blast  completely.  Make 
small  piles  by  hand. 

Dry 

Team,  explosive 
puller,  piler 

Puller  sometimes  pays 
when  explosives  are 
used  for  cracking. 

Maple 

Birch 

Lateral 

1 to  5 
years 

Heavy 

or 

medium 

Wet 

or 

dry 

i 

1 

1 

Pasture  and  hay  till  fine 
roots  decay,  unless  only 
few  stumps  to  acre. 

5 years 

Heavy 

or 

medium 

Wet 



j Teams,  explosive. 

Blast  completely.  Make 
small  hand  piles. 

Heavy 

Dry 

Teams,  explosve. 

Blast  completely.  Make 
small  hand  piles. 

Medium 

Dry 

'reams,  explosive, 
piler,  puller. 

Puller  sometimes  pays  in 
combination  with  ex- 
plosives. 

Poplar 

Lateral 

1 year 
2 years 

Heavy  1 
or  ! 

light  ; 

Wet 

or 

dry 

Wait  for  fine  roots  to  de- 
cay. 1 to  2 years.  Cut 
small  trees  even  with 
the  ground 

Heavy 
or  1 

light  1 

Wet 

or 

dry 

Team,  explosives. 

Explosives  needed  on 
large  ones  only. 

Oak  or 
lass  wood 

Deep 

lateral 

semi-tap 

Various 

soils 

Wet 

or 

dry 

Team,  explosives. 

Blast  in  the  fall,  pull  fol- 
lowing spring  with  team 
Keep  sprouts  down. 
Idler  may  helj)  for  large 
st  ump.s. 

26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  320 


Hand  Piling 

When  a puller  is  not  used  and  enough  dynamite  is  taken  to 
remove  the  stump  completely,  the  pieces  are  usually  small.  In 
that  case  the  piler  is  not  necessary  and  the  most  economical  re- 
sults are  had  by  hand  piling.  The  stumps  are  placed  in 


MG.  19.— RESULT  OF  USING  BOTH  DYNAMITE:  AND  PULLER 

When  the  combination  method  is  used,  the  soil  remains  in  the  hole  and  not  on  the 

roots  of  the  stump. 

small,  high  piles  and  three  or  four  larger  pieces  are  used  as  a 
tripod  to  hold  the  rest  of  the  pile.  The  smaller  pieces  can 
then  be  piled  between  and  on  the  top  making  a narrow,  high, 
compact  pile.  These  piles  dry  out  quickly  and  burn  completely 
without  much  “chunking  up.’^  It  is  best  not  to  make  these 
piles  large  as  that  requires  carrying  the  small  pieces  too  great 
a distance.  The  piler  is  not  economical  for  this  work  as  the 
small  pieces  have  to  be  handled  too  many  times  before  they  are 
finally  placed. 


Clear  More  Land 


27 


Stumps  are  occasionally  used  as  fences.  Fig.  7 shows  one 
of  these  partly  grown  up  to  brush  and  weeds.  This  is  surely 
a breeding  place  for  insects,  rabbits  and  other  animal  pests  as 
well  as  of  plant  diseases.  If  stumps  are  needed  as  fuel  they 
can  be  piled  until  used  but  the  new  farmer  will  do  well  to  plan 
at  the  beginning  for  a wood  lot  where  he  can  provide  his  fuel. 
Care  at  the  start  will  pay  later. 

Where  men  apply  intelligent  effort  and  cooperate  with  their 
neighbors,  with  their  banker,  and  with  all  the  forces  of  develop- 
ment, land  clearing  is  easier,  quicker  and  less  costly. 


flXl 


I'L.  ..  P.rr  /.  ..f/  ..  ^r 

5iBulletin  321  ^ • X—  November,  1920 

CHEESEMAKERS  SAVE 


BY  FIGURING  COSTS 


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AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


0 . . m 

S it. 


DIGEST 


Accurate  cost  records  are  essential  at  either  a large  or  a small 
cheese  factory.  Such  records  give  both  the  farmer  and  the  maker  the 
best  possible  basis  for  agreeing  upon  the  price  of  making  cheese. 

Page  3 

Carelessness  in  figuring  costs  is  expensive.  When  important  items 
of  expense  are  guessed  at  or  overlooked,  the  result  is  either  a loss  or  a 
serious  reduction  of  the  annual  profits.  Page  4 

Small  savings  count  in  a large  cheese  factorj%  It  is  important 
that  farmers  and  makers  understand  why  large  factories  may  be  able 
to  operate  at  a lower  cost  per  pound  of  cheese  than  small  factories. 

Page  5 

Figures  from  18  cheese  factories  show  wide  variations  in  their 
costs  and  profits.  Differences  are  apparent  even  among  factories  of 
the  same  size  and  equipment.  Page  6 

The  maker’s  income  averaged  1.01  cent  a pound  at  the  larger  fac- 
tories in  Group  A.  At  the  smaller  factories  in  Group  B,  it  was  only 
0.22  cents.  Page  6 

Real  estate  charges  for  interest  and  depreciation  averaged  twice 
as  high  per  pomid  of  cheese  at  the  smaller  factories  than  at  the 
larger  ones.  This  type  of  charge  never  ceases  whether  the  factory  is 
in  operation  or  not.  Page  7 

Equipment  costs  for  interest  and  depreciation  averaged  higher  at 
the  smaller  factories  than  at  the  larger  ones.  Page  8 

Supplies,  help,  taxes  and  insitrance  cost  about  1/10  of  a cent 

more  at  the  smaller  factories  per  pound  of  cheese  than  at  the 

larger  ones.  Page  9 

The  total  costs  of  making  a pound  of  cheese,  when  figured  cor- 
rectly, averaged  2.686  cents  at  the  Group  A factories  in  1918.  The 
cost  was  3.879  cents  at  the  smaller  factories  in  Group  B.  Page  10 

When  figuring  yeai'ly  depreciation  and  interest  on  the  present 
value  of  factory  and  equipment,  the  maker  should  consider  four  im- 
portant points.  Page  11 

Supplies  and  other  expenses  should  be  itemized  carefully.  An 
inventory  is  useful  in  calculating  the  quantity  and  cost  of  supplies. 
This  may  also  he  estimated  from  the  amount  and  kind  of  cheese  made. 

Page  14 

To  figure  a price  for  making  cheese  to  yield  a fair  annual  labor 
income  to  the  maker  requires  a summary  of  all  costs  of  making.  Once 
begun,  this  system  can  be  followed  easily  from  year  to  year.  Page  15 

Five  sample  blanks  to  aid  the  cheesemaker  in  figuring  his  costs 
accurately  are  shown  in  detail.  Pages  17-20 


Cheesemakers  Save  By  Figuring 

Costs 


r J.  L.  Sammis  and  0.  A.  Juve 

5. 

V The  cost  of  making  cheese,  when  correctly  figured,  is  often 
found  to  be  larger  than  the  farmer  or  cheesemaker  had  sup- 

^ posed.  In  consequence,  the  maker’s  income  for  this  year,  after 

r paying  the  factory  expenses,  may  be  smaller  than  he  had  anti- 

f cipated.  Too  low  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  making  cheese  may 

occur  either: 

(1)  because  the  costs  were  guessed  at  and  not  accurately 
r calculated,  or 

f!  (2)  because  of  certain  common  errors  in  factory  methods 

of  figuring. 

Why  Factory  Costs  Differ 

^ In  the  absence  of  exact  cost  figures,  the  maker  at  a small, 

^ one-man  factory  is  likely  to  assume  that  he  can  make  a pound 

I of  cheese  as  cheaply  as  it  can  be  done  at  a neighboring  factory, 

L where  several  men  are  employed  to  handle  a larger  milk  sup- 

I 

f Experience  in  different  lines  of  manufacture  shows,  on  the 

V contrary,  that  from  nearly  every  standpoint  the  large  factory 

£ may  have  advantages  over  the  small  one,  whether  the  cost  of 

5 building  and  equipment  be  considered,  or  the  cost  of  supplies, 

I labor,  materials,  or  other  factors  in  the  business.  That  this 

I must  be  generally  true  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  doubling 

I the  floor  space  in  a building  does  not  necessarily  double  its 

t cost.  Building  materials,  equipment  and  supplies  can  be  pur- 

E chased  more  cheaply  in  large  quantities.  For  the  labor  that 

i is  needed  in  the  factory  the  first  man  must  be  experienced  and 

i licensed,  but  the  larger  factory  can  also  utilize  additional  help, 

t less  experienced,  and  at  lower  wages,  thus  reducing  the  average 

6 cost  of  labor  at  large  factories.  For  all  these  reasons,  the 

J larger  factory  may  be  able  to  operate  at  a lower  cost  per  pound 

X of  cheese  than  the  smaller  one. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  321 


Yet  the  small  cheese  factory  may  have  a real  place  in  the 
community.  A few  dairy  farmers  often  wish  to  start  such  a 
factory  at  the  nearest  crossroads,  because  of  the  shorter  haul 
for  them.  They  suppose  that  the  small  plant  with  half  a vat  of 
milk  daily  can  operate  at  the  same  cost  per  pound  of  cheese  as 
the  other  factory  having  a larger  milk  supply,  located  several 
miles  away.  These  farmers  hope  to  combine  the  greatest  econ- 
omy in  manufacture  with  the  convenience  of  having  a small 
factory  near  by.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  often  this  con- 
venience can  be  had  only  at  some  loss  of  economy,  and  that  the 
price  to  be  paid  per  pound  for  making  cheese  at  the  small  fac- 
tory may  be  larger  than  at  the  more  distant,  large  factory.  In 
many  cases,  however,  the  advantage  of  the  shorter  haul  will 
more  than  offset  the  increased  cost  of  manufacture,  and  the 
farmer  will  be  entirely  willing  to  pay  the  slightly  higher  price 
asked  by  the  maker  at  the  small  factory. 

Farmers  are  learning  better  every  year  how  to  keep  farm 
records  and  accounts,  so  that  costs  can  be  accurately  figured, 
and  in  coming  years  every  cheesemaker  will  be  expected  to 
show  his  patrons  accurate  cost  records,  since  these  afford  the 
best  possible  basis  for  both  to  agree  on  the  price  to  be  paid  for 
making  cheese  at  that  factory. 

Errors  and  Omissions  in  Figuring  Costs 

A common  oversight  is  to  omit  from  the  list  of  costs  the  prop- 
er charges  for  depreciation  and  interest  on  the  investment  in 
buildings,  equipment  and  land,  the  maker  supposing  these  sums 
to  be  insignificant.  Although  running  expenses  for  material, 
supplies  and  labor  are  closely  proportionate  to  the  amoaut  of 
the  product  manufactured,  yet  the  depreciation  of  the  buiidiug 
and  equipment  never  ceases.  The  investment  should  earn  in- 
terest every  day  in  the  year,  although  the  factory  may  be  closed 
part  of  the  time.  It  is  shown  (page  12)  by  practical  illustra- 
tions that  interest  and  depreciation  charges  on  the  investment 
are  an  important  factor  in  figuring  costs. 

A second  item  often  overlooked  is  the  cost  of  annual  repairs  ; 
and  unless  all  records  and  bills  of  the  year’s  business  are  care- 
fully saved  throughout  the  year,  several  important  items  are 
likely  to  be  forgotten  and  omitted.  That  this  often  occurs  at 
cheese  factories,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  a number  of  ques- 


Cheesemakers  Save  by  Figuring  Costs 


5 


tionaires  sent  to  cheesemakers  from  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station  were  returned  with  some  of  the  questions  unanswered 
or  with  the  notation  ‘‘Do  not  know/^ 

Examples  of  Variations  in  Makers’  Labor  Income 

From  a group  of  about  60  returned  questionaires,  18  of  the 
most  complete  reports  have  been  chosen  to  serve  as  an  illus- 
tration of  the  necessity  for  a method  of  accurately  figuring 
costs.  At  nine  of  these  factories  (Group  A),  the  average  labor 
income  of  the  maker  was  $2,069  in  1918,  but  at  the  other  nine 
(Group  B)  it  averaged  $237.  At  the  Group  A factories  this 
averaged  1.01  cent  per  pound  of  cheese,  but  only  .22  cent  at 
the  Group  B factories.  (Table  I). 

Not  any  of  the  Group  B factorymen  had  figured  correctly 
their  total  expenses.  Having  omitted  several  important  items, 
they  had  then  charged  too  little  for  making  cheese,  and  when 
the  total  expense  charges  were  subtracted  from  their  incomes, 
they  were  greatly  surprised  to  find  out  how  little  money  was 
left,  as  the  “labor  income”  for  the  year. 

Careful  Figuring  Necessary  at  Both  Large  and  Small 

Factories 

By  charging  an  average  of  1 cent  less  per  pound  for  making 
at  the  Group  A factories,  the  maker’s  entire  labor  income 
would  have  been  wiped  out,  and  a difference  of  only  cent 
in  the  making  price  at  the  Group  B factories  would  have 
done  the  same  for  them. 

The  terms  “large”  and  “small”  factories  are  used  here  in 
their  ordinary  sense,  without  any  attempt  at  exact  definition. 
It  is  both  interesting  and  important  to  note  that  the  average 
daily  cheese  output  throughout  1918  for  the  9 Group  A fac- 
tories was  562  pounds,  but  only  298  pounds  in  Group  B. 
Also,  that  Group  A contains  every  factory  but  one  (No.  6) 
which  made  375  pounds  or  more  of  cheese  daily,  while  Group 
B contains  every  factory  but  one  (No  17)  which  made  an 
average  daily  output  less  than  375  pounds.  The  general  fact 
is  here  illustrated  that  in  larger  cheese  factories  more  careful 
attention  is  given  to  figuring  costs,  so  as  certainly  to  obtain  a 
fair  labor  income.  At  the  smaller  factories  the  tendency  to 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  321 


neglect  records  and  figures  is  more  evident,  and  the  returns  to 
the  maker  are  unreasonably  low  or  sometimes  a serious  loss. 
The  detailed  figures  for  these  factories  are  shown  in  Table  1. 


Table  I. — Labor  Income  and  Cheese  Output  at  18  Large  and 
Small  Factories  in  1918 


Group  A 

Group  B 

Factory 

number 

Annual 

labor 

income 

Average  daily 
output 
(pounds) 

Factory 

number 

Annual 

labor 

income 

Average  daily 
output 
(pounds) 

51 

$1621 

827 

6 

$ 82 

427 

9 

1813 

740 

1 

331 

365 

28 

2089 

564 

7 

444 

324 

54 

1383 

561 

11 

531 

301 

34 

1748 

543 

15 

I 652 

284 

53 

3246 

541 

31 

1 494 

274 

50 

3472 

541 

23 

1 704 

271 

17 

1621 

361 

26 

' Loss  864 

248 

18 

1631 

375 

45 

, Loss  243 

195 

Average 

$2069 

562 

Average 

1 $237 

m 

Average  l.Olf  per  pound  of 

Average  0.22^  per  pound  of 

cheese 

cheese 

A cheesemaker’s  labor  income  is  the  amount  of  money  he  has 
left  for  himself  out  of  his  total  receipts  at  the  end  of  the  year 
after  paying  all  expenses  and  charges  including  supplies,  repairs, 
help,  depreciation  and  interest  on  his  investment  in  factory, 
equipment,  etc.  Labor  income  is  the  maker’s  pay  for  his  own 
services. 

The  table  shows  that  the  makers  in  Group  A received  about 
one  cent  a pound  for  their  labor,  but  the  makers  in  Group  B 
received  only  about  one-fifth  of  a cent  a pound.  In  order  to 
pay  the  Group  B makers  1 cent  a pound  for  their  labor,  the  an- 
nual expense  to  the  farmers  at  the  average  Group  B factory 
must  be  increased  by  about  $850. 

It  is  evident  that  about  half  of  the  18  factories  should  have 
charged  higher  prices  for  making,  but  just  how  much  more  can 
be  told  only  by  careful  figuring  of  costs  at  each  factorjL 

The  relative  importance  of  the  different  items  of  cost  can  be 
illustrated  by  figures  from  the  same  list  of  18  factories. 


Cheesemakers  Save  by  Figuring  Costs 


7 


Income  On  Real  Estate  Investments 

In  many  cases,  the  amount  of  money  invested  in  a small  fac- . 
tory  building  and  land,  and  the  annual  charges  for  interest,  re- 
pairs and  depreciation  are  much  larger  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  cheese  made  than  at  other  factories  having  a larger 
milk  supply.  This  fact  is  illustrated  by  the  18  factories  in 
these  two  groups. 


Table  II. — Real  Estate  Investments  at  Large  and  Small 
Cheese  Factories 


Group  A 

Group  B 

Factory 

number 

Investment 
in  building 
and  land 

Interest, 
depreciation, 
and  repairs 
for  1918 

Factory 

number 

Investment 
in  building 
and  land 

Interest, 
depreciation, 
and  repairs 
for  1918 

51 

$4900  i 

$644 

6 

$5400 

$582 

9 

3000  i 

467 

1 

6100 

970 

28 

2575 

270 

7 

3100 

405 

54 

3630 

365 

11 

2600 

350 

34 

5000 

607 

15 

3075 

380 

53 

31 

4575 

545 

50 

4400 

'iii 

2S 

2700 

408 

17 

26 

3800 

; 385 

18 

1 5050 

',590 

45 

Average 

k094 

$480 

Average 

$3920 

$503 

Cost  per  pound  of  cheese  $0.00221 

1 Cost  per  pound  of  cheese  $0 . 00442 

The  annual  charges  at  the  Group  B factories  averaged  a little 
higher  than  at  the  Group  A factories,  where  the  daily  output 
of  cheese  was  the  larger.  On  this  account  the  real  estate 
charge  for  making  a pound  of  cheese  at  the  Group  B factories 
is  about  double  that  at  the  Group  A factories.  The  method  of 
figuring  the  annual  charges  on  real  estate  for  interest,  deprecia- 
tion and  repairs  will  be  explained  later. 

Small  Plants  Fail  to  Get  Full  Value  of  Equipment 

It  is  obvious  that  a factory  must  have  a vat  and  press  and 
other  equipment  whether  the  vat  is  full  or  only  half  full  of 
milk  every  day.  Therefore,  the  charges  on  equipment  for  each 
pound  of  cheese  made  are  likely  to  be  larger  at  the  factories 
with  the  smaller  milk  supplies. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  321 


The  investment  in  equipment  and  the  annual  charges  for  in- 
terest, depreciation  and  repairs  on  equipment  at  the  factories 
in  Groups  A and  B,  for  1918,  are  shown  in  Table  III. 

Table  III. —Equipment  Investments  at  Large  and  Small 
Cheese  Factories 


Group  A 

Group  B 

1 

Interest, 

i 

Interest, 

Factory 

j Eauipment 

depreciation. 

F actory 

Equipment 

depreciation. 

number 

1 investment 

and  repairs 

number 

investment 

and  repairs 

for  1918 

for  1918 

51 

83275 

$950 

6 

$3u80 

$559 

9 

2084 

487 

1 

2u52 

425 

28 

1400 

7 

1600 

424 

54 

1 2766 

'sif 

i 

1906 

461 

34 

2450 

494 

! 15 

2217 

493 

53 

2170 

475 

31 

2102 

430 

50 

2140 

356 

23 

670  1 

165 

17 

1659  ; 

477 

26 

1443 

354 

18 

1395 

363 

45 

1400 

368 

Average 

S2150  j 

$515 

Average 

S1830 

S409 

Cost  per  pound  of  cheese  $0.00205 

Cost  per  pound  of  cheese  $0.00347 

These  figures  show  that  the  equipment  cost  on  each  pound  of 
cheese  is  nearly  twice  as  great  at  the  Group  B factories.  Add- 
ing together  the  figures  in  the  last  lines  of  Tables  II  and  III, 
the  annual  factory  and  equipment  cost  for  each  pound  of 
cheese  in  Group  A is  on  the  average,  $0.00426  and  in  Group  B, 
$0.00789.  It  appears,  therefore,  (1)  that  the  cost  for  building 
and  equipment  was  about  35/100  of  a cent  a pound  greater  at 
the  smaller  factories.  No  factory  man  can  afford  to  omit  fig- 
uring annual  charges  for  interest,  depreciation  and  repairs  on 
factory  and  equipment,  since  these  may  amount  to  % of  a 
cent  per  pound  or  more. 

Larger  Factories  Buy  Supplies  on  Better  Terms 

The  expense  per  pound  of  cheese  for  supplies,  taxes  and  in- 
surance, is  likely  to  be  smaller  at  a large  factory  than  at  a 
small  one.  The  larger  factory  is  able  to  buy  supplies,  such  as 
boxes,  in  larger  lots,  at  lower  prices  and  on  better  terms,  and 
to  get  credit  from  the  bank  in  order  to  discount  bills. 

Every  time  a boiler  is  fired  and  afterward  allowed  to  cool, 
certain  amounts  of  heat  and  fuel  are  wasted.  Where  a boiler 


Cheesemakers  Save  by  Figuring  Costs 


9 


must  be  heated  up  to  handle  a small  amount  of  milk,  this  loss 
of  fuel  is  relatively  more  important  than  at  a factory  vrith  a 
larger  milk  supply. 

The  costs  of  taxes,  insurance  on  the  building,  telephone,  etc. 
are  important  items,  which  are  the  same  whether  much  or 
little  cheese  is  made,  and  are  therefore  more  expensive  for 
each  pound  of  cheese  made  at  the  small  factory. 

The  cost  of  certain  supplies,  such  as  bandages,  boxes,  and 
rennet,  is  exactly  proportional  to  the  amount  of  cheese  made, 
except  as  they  may  be  bought  cheaper  in  larger  lots.  The 
cost  of  a helper’s  labor  varies  according  to  conditions. 


Table  IV — Supplies,  Help,  Taxes,  Insurance,  Office  Supplies 


Group  A 

Group  B 

Factory  number 

Cost  in  1918 

Factory  number 

Cost  in  1918 

51 

$4575.89 

6 

$2500.66 

9 

4208.68 

1 

2571.20 

28 

2220.34 

7 

1522.95 

54 

2988.69 

11 

1157.70 

34 

2446.75 

15 

1675.74 

53 

2798.50 

31 

1109.50 

50 

1479.50 

23 

903.67 

17 

1283.98 

26 

1218.30 

18 

1326.00 

45 

1238.80 

A vera^^e 

$2592.00 

Averagre 

$1544,00 

Cost  per  pound  of  cheese  1.26c  Cost  per  pound  of  cheese  1.34c 


The  cost  of  these  items  (Table  IV.)  averages  about  one- 
tenth  of  a cent  higher  for  a pound  of  cheese  at  the  smaller  fac- 
tories. 


Figuring  a Fair  Labor  Income  for  the  Maker 

Every  factory  manager  should  estimate  for  himself,  each 
year,  the  cost  of  making  cheese  at  his  factory,  in  order  to  be 
sure  of  charging  a price  which  will  be  fair  to  himself  as  well 
as  to  the  patrons.  He  should  consider  his  pay  for  handling  the 
business  a part  of  the  cheesemaking  costs  and  this  item  should 
be  added  to  other  costs  in  determining  the  price. 

A fair  way  to  estimate  the  cheesemaker’s  labor  income  is  on 
the  basis  of  other  wages  paid.  If  a helper  can  earn  $500  a 
year,  and  if  a skilled  maker  earns  $1,200  to  $1,800  a year,  the 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  321 


owner-maker  who  makes  cheese,  owns  the  factory,  manages 
the  business,  figures  the  payments,  and  handles  the  money  may 
expect  to  earn  $2,000  a year  (as  in  Group  A)  for  his  services 
when  the  work  is  sufficient  to  keep  him  busy  throughout  the 
year.  Dividing  the  sum  $2,000  by  the  average  weight  of  cheese 
made  annually  at  the  factories  in  each  group,  gives  about  1 
cent  as  the  maker’s  calculated  pay  in  Group  A,  and  1%  cents 
in  Group  B factories.  If  the  Group  B maker  were  paid  only  1 
cent  for  making,  he  might  have  made  as  much  money  working 
by  the  month  with  less  responsibility. 

Adding  these  costs  listed  in  Tables  II,  III,  and  lY,  gives  an 
idea  of  the  possible  differences  in  cost  of  making  cheese  in 
large  and  small  factories. 


Table  V. — Summary  of  Cheesemaking  Costs  at  18  Factories  in  1918 


Group  A 

Group  B 

Cost  per  pound  of  cheese 

Cost  per  pound  of  cheese 

Buildings  and  land  charges 

.221  cents 
.205 
1.26 
1.00 

.442  cents 
.347 
1.34 
1.75 

Equipment  charge 

Supplies,  help,  taxes,  etc 

Makers*  pay  at  $2000 

Total  s 

2.686  cents 

3.879 

Each  item  of  cost  may  be  figured  under  the  system  explained 
below. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  cost  of  supplies,  help,  taxes, 
etc.,  per  pound  of  cheese,  varies  between  large  and  small  fac- 
tories less  than  does  either  the  labor  charge,  or  the  interest  and 
depreciation  on  factory  and  equipment.  Yet  the  cost  of  sup- 
plies is  the  item  given  most  attention  by  many  makers  who  do 
not  realize  the  importance  of  the  other  items. 

How  TO  Figure  Annual  Expenses  on  Factory  Building 
AND  Land 

Any  cheesemaker  owning  his  factory  should  reckon  for  him- 
self a reasonable  return  on  this  investment  and  include  this 
sum  as  a part  of  the  factory’s  expenses. 

Suppose  that  a maker  had  paid  $7,000  for  a factor}^  and  $500 
for  an  acre  or  two  of  land  early  in  1918.  At  the  beginning  of 


Cheesemakers  Save  by  Figuring  Costs 


11 


1919,  he  should  figure  (1)  the  annual  interest,  at  a fair  local 
rate,  usually  5 per  cent  or  more.  At  5 per  cent  on  this  $7,500 
investment,  the  interest  would  be  $375.  (2)  On  the  factory, 

if  built  of  wood,  he  should  add  a charge  of  5 per  cent,  or  $350, 
for  depreciation,  as  the  building  is  likely  to  be  worth  little  or 
nothing  after  20  years.  (3)  Any  such  repairs,  as  painting,  ?re-, 
placing  window  glass,  fly  screens,  re-laying  a floor,  should  be 
added  and  may  amount  to  $25.  In  case  of  abnormal  repair 
bills  during  any  one  year  their  cost  should  be  distributed  over 
several  years.  There  might  be  no  repair  charge  during  the  first 
year.  (4)  A cheese  factory  and  residence  for  the  maker  if 
built  in  the  country  may  lose  most  of  their  value,  if  the  patrons 
for  any  reason  stop  bringing  their  milk.  The  risk  of  losing 
most  of  the  money  invested  will  be  small  if  the  patrons  own 
the  factory,  but  is  large  if  the  maker  owns  it.  It  is  hard  to 
set  a money  value  on  this  item.  The  risk  can  be  carried  easily 
by  the  patrons,  and  this  is  an  important  reason  why  they 
should  own  the  factory.  The  maker  has  no  way  to  insure  him- 
self against  loss  from  this  source  if  he  owns  the  factory. 

By  adding  up  the  items  listed  in  (1),  (2),  and  (3),  the  total 
necessary  charge  on  the  factory  investment  is  obtained  whieh 
may  be  $725  or  more  in  this  case. 

Buildings  Depreciate  Each  Year 

If  $350,  or  5 per  cent  of  the  wooden  building  cost  is  charged 
to  depreciation  the  first  year,  then  the  investment  remaining 
in  the  factory  during  1?he  second  year  is  $7,000  less  $350,  or 
$6,650.  For  the  third  year  it  is  $6,300  and  for  each  succeeding 
year  is  $350  less.  Some  owners  neglect  this  annual  decrease 
in  factory  investment. 

The  interest  at  5 per  cent  each  year  is  figured  on  the  invest- 
ment figure  for  that  year,  and  is  $332  for  the  second  year, 
$315  for  the  third  year,  and  so  forth.  The  depreeiation  charge 
of  $350  on  the  building  remains  the  same  each  year.  This  plan 
fully  repays  the  original  cost  of  the  wooden  building  in  20 
years,  after  which  no  more  depreciation  need  be  charged  un- 
less a new  investment  is  made,  as  in  rebuilding  the  factory  or 
part  of  it.  In  case  of  an  additional  investment,  as  in  enlarging 
the  factory,  the  annual  charge  on  this  addition  may  be  figured 
as  shown  in  table  VI  for  the  year  1921. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  321 


The  5 per  cent  interest  charge  on  the  $500  invested  in  land, 
in  1918,  amounting  to  $25  is  made  each  year  until  the  land  is 
sold.  Adding  these  amounts  together,  the  owner’s  expense  for 
interest  and  depreciation  on  building  and  land  may  be  as 
follows : 


Table  VI. — Annual  Charges  on  Account  of  Depreciation  Vary 


Present  value  of  building, 

Interest  5 per  cent  of  present 

value 

Depreciation  5 per  cent  of  orig- 
inal cost 

Interest  on  original  cost  of  Ian  a . 

Jan.  1,  1919 

Jan,  1,  1920 

Jan.  1,  1921 

Jan.  1,  1922 

$7000 

$350 

350 

25 

S725 

$6650 

SS32 

350 

25 

®6300 

$315 

350 

25 

$5950 

$297 

350 

25 

$^ 

Addition  to  factory  built  early 
in  1920 

$500 

25 

25 

~50 

$740 

$475 

24 

25 

~49 

$721 

Annual  Interest 

Depreciation 

Total  annual  charges 

$725 

1707 

To  this  should  be  added  taxes  and  insurance,  (if  not  in- 
cluded in  the  table  of  running  expenses),  as  shown  below. 

In  case  the  maker  pays  an  annual  rental  for  use  of  the  fac- 
tory, the  amount  so  paid  is  his  “total  charge”  on  factory 
building.  Interest  and  depreciation  should  be  figured  only  by 
the  owner. 

The  Annual  Chaege  on  Investment  in  Equipment 

The  machinery  at  this  factory  was  all  bought  early  in  1918. 
Any  additional  pieces  of  equipment  purchased  in  the  following 
years  may  be  added  to  the  list,  as  shown  in  Table  VII. 

It  is  important  to  notice  the  method  of  figuring  the  charge 
each  year  on  each  item  of  equipment.  The  boiler  bought  early 
in  1918  at  $330  is  listed  in  the  column  for  Jan.  1,  1919,  as 
being  worth  the  cost  price,  $330,  and  estimated  to  last  15 
years.  Dividing  by  15  gives  the  annual  depreciation  which  is 
$22.  The  interest  for  the  first  year  is  calculated  on  $330. 
The  next  year,  the  value  is  $22  less,  or  $308,  and  the  interest 
for  the  second  year  is  calculated  on  that  sum.  Thus  the 


Cheesemakers  Save  by  Figuring  Costs 


13 


Table  VII. — Figuring  Annual  Charges  on  Equipment 


Jan.  1,  1919 


Eduipment 


Boiler 

Steam  eng-ine. . 

Gas  engine 

Electric  motor 

Vat 

Press 

Hoops 

Mill 

Knives 

Tinware 

Other  items 


Total. 


Value 


$330 

100 


iOO 

160 

100 

27 

15 


$957 


Life 


15  years 
10  years 


5 years 
20  years 
10  years 
9 years 
5 years 
5 years 


Annual 

depre- 

ciation 


$22 

10 


$101 


Equipment  bought  early  in  1919: 
Whey  separator  20  years. . ] . . . 
Whey  vat  10  years. . 1 .. . 

Whey  tank  10  years. . f . .. 
Pumps  and  pipes  15  years. .J  ... 
Other  items 


Jan.  1,  1920 


Value 


160 

152 

90 

24 

12 

20 


Annual 

depre- 

ciation 


$22 

10 


Jan.  1,  1921 


Value 


$286 

80 


120 

144 

80 

21 

9 

15 


Annual 

depre- 

ciation 


$22 

10 


Totals. 


Equipment  value 


$957 


Interest,  5 per  cent  on  value. 

Depreciation 

Repairs 


Total  annual  charge. 


$1691 


1601 


$152 


$1539 


1519 


$152 


48 

101 

None 

”$149~ 


85 

152 

5 


77 

152 


$242 


$237 


fifteenth  year,  the  value  of  the  boiler  would  be  listed  as  worth 
only  $22,  as  the  remaining  $308  have  been  charged  off  to  de- 
preciation during  the  preceding  years.  After  15  years,  this 
boiler  would  require  no  further  charge  for  interest  or  deprecia- 
tion. If  any  piece  of  equipment  were  bought  and  expected  to 
wear  out  in  a year,  its  entire  cost  should  be  charged  to  depreci- 
ation the  first  year,  and  the  interest  on  that  sum  for  one  year 
added  in.  Each  article  is  thus  handled  separately  so  that  once 
begun,  the  system  is  very  easy  to  follow  in  making  the  annual 
estimate  of  costs. 

This  method  of  finding  the  annual  charge  on  the  equipment 
investment  may  be  varied  to  suit  any  particular  case. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  321 


Supplies,  Labor,  and  Other  Expenses 

In  order  to  calculate  the  quantity  and  cost  of  supplies  used 
during  the  year,  the  maker  should  have  an  inventory  of  each 
kind  of  supplies  on  hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  season,  for 
example,  January  1.  He  should  then  add  the  cost  of  supplies 
bought  during  the  year,  and  subtract  from  the  total  the  value 
of  supplies  left  on  hand  at  the  close  of  the  year.  In  the  absence 
of  an  inventory  the  quantity  of  supplies  used  can  be  estimated 
from  the  amount  and  kind  of  cheese  made.  A cheese  factory 
operator  should  save  all  his  bills  and  records  until  the  end  of 
the  year,  so  that  he  can  figure  costs  exactly.  By  this  or  sim- 
ilar means,  he  will  then  be  able  to  fill  out  the  blanks  in  the 
table  below,  showing  the  cost  of  boxes,  bandages,  coal,  and 
other  supplies  used  during  the  season.  All  other  factory  ex- 
penses should  be  added,  including  labor,  postage,  insurance, 
telephone,  printing,  railroad  fare,  telegrams,  etc.,  as  listed 
in  the  table,  taking  great  care  not  to  omit  any  items. 


Tablk  Vlir. — Supplies  and  Other  Expenses  Should  be  Listed 


1919 


1920 


1921 


Supplies  used  in, 


Quantity  Value 


Quantity 


Value 


Quantity 


Value 


Boxes,  style . 

Boxes,  style . 

Boxes,  style . 

Bandages 

Bandages 

Bandages 

Circles 

Press  cloths 

Extract 

Color 

Salt 

Washing  powder 

Brushes 

Paint 

Other  items 


Power 

Coal 

Wood 

Gasoline 

Oil  and  grease 

Electricity 

OLher  items 

Office 

Telephone 

Printing  

Postage ; 

Blank  books I 

Other  items. t 

Lah  or  I 

Helper 


Totals 


Cheesemakers  Save  by  Figuring  Costs 


15 


Keeping  record  of  the  expenses  for  supplies,  as  in  Table 
VIII,  has  another  advantage  in  that  it  helps  the  cheese  maker 
to  prepare  his  annual  income  tax  return.  The  maker’s  “in- 
come from  personal  services”  (in  the  tax  blank)  covers  not 
only  his  labor  income  but  many  incidental  expenses,  such  as 
supplies.  The  “net  amount”  (labor  income)  on  which  income 
tax  should  be  paid  is  found  by  deducting  these  expenses  from 
the  maker’s  income. 

By  adding  the  charges  listed  in  Tables  VI  to  VII  the  total 
of  all  charges  for  each  year  is  obtained  (Table  IX). 


Table  IX.— Summarizing  Costs. 


1919 

1920 

1921 

Charge  on  factory  (Table  VI) 

$ 

* 

% 

Charge  on  equipment  (Table  VII) 

$ 

$ 

$ 

Charge  on  supplies  (Table  VIII) 

1 

•’C 

$ 

Total  (tharges 

i 

$ 

Subtracting  this  total  charge  for  any  one  year  from  the 
maker’s  total  income  leaves  the  sum  which  he  has  left  for  his 
own  services,  after  paying  for  factory  supplies  and  equipment. 

If  the  maker’s  pay,  figured  in  this  manner,  appears  to  be  too 
small,  the  method  shown  in  Table  X may  be  used  to  figure 
how  much  he  should  have  charged  per  pound  for  making 
cheese  during  the  last  year,  to  yield  the  labor  income  which 
he  desires. 


Table  X. — Figuring  the  Necessary  Price  for  Making  Cheese 


Jan.,  1919 


Jan.,  1920 


Jan.,  1921 


Charge  on  factory  (Table  VI) S. 

Charge  on  equipment  (Table  VI 1) 

Charge  on  supplies  (Table  VIII) 

Add  desired  labor  income 


Total  necessary  charges % 

Pounds  cheese  made  during  year 

(Dividing)  

Necessary  price  per  pound 


pounds 


: 

pounds 

c 


pounds 


This  price  is  for  a factory  where  the  maker  receives  no 
money  from  the  whey  cream.  In  case  tlic  maker  receives  one- 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  321 


half  or  any  part  of  the  whey  cream  money,  his  income  from 
this  source  is  first  subtracted  (Table  XI). 


Table  XL — Figuring  the  Maker’s  Price  per  Pound  Where  Whey 

IS  Skimmed 


1919 

1920 

1921 

Npp,p,ssa,ry  f'.ha.rg'ftS!  fTa,hlp,  ~X) 

5 

$ 

s 

Maker’s;  whfty  r*rpa,m  inprirnpi  for  yp.ai’ 

(Subtracting^) 

pounds 

Pounds  of  ctieese  made  eacli  vear 

(Dividing) 

Necessary  price  per  pound 

c 

c 

c 

The  final  figures  in  Table  XI,  show  what  price  the  factory- 
man  should  charge  for  making  cheese,  in  order  to  have  the 
desired  labor  income  for  the  year,  from  both  cheese  and  whey 
cream. 

In  deciding  on  a price  for  making  cheese  for  the  next  year, 
it  is  necessary  to  consider  probable  changes  in  prices  of  sup- 
plies, labor,  as  well  as  the  cost  of  any  necessary  repairs  or  in- 
creased investments  to  be  made,  and  any  increase  or  decrease 
in  the  milk  supply.  The  patrons  should  be  made  to  under- 
stand that  with  a larger  milk  supply  the  cost  per  pound  for 
making  may  be  lower. 

The  following  notes  are  intended  to  answer  additional  ques- 
tions which  may  arise.  Further  inquiries  may  be  sent  to  the 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Madison,  Wis. 

Notes  on  Blanks  A to  E 

(a)  First  cost  means  cost  to  present  owner,  whether  built  or 
purchased  by  him. 

(b)  To  get  “annual  depreciation”  divide  first  cost  by  life  in 
years. 

(c)  The  “total  annual  * charge”  is  to  be  included  in  the  list 
(Table  D)  of  expenses  for  running  the  factory  for  the  year  to  repay 
to  the  owner  the  money  invested  with  interest  at  the  local  rate  by 
the  time  the  factory  building  is  worn  out,  which  is  considered  as  20 
vears  for  a wooden  building,  or  80  years  for  a stone,  concrete,  or 
other  fireproof  building.  As  the  land  retains  its  value,  no  annual 
depreciation  charge  on  the  land  is  included.  Although  a factory 
and  land  may  actually  increase  in  market  value  over  its  original 
cost,  no  account  is  taken  of  such  increase  here,  as  the  purpose  is  to 
repay  the  original  cost  of  building  with  interest  during  the  life  of 
the  building  together  with  interest  on  the  money  invested  in  land. 

(d)  If  the  form  for  Table  A above  is  copied  on  the  left  hand 


Cheesemakers  Save  by  Figuring  Costs 


17 


page  of  a blank  book,  with  30  or  more  lines  to  the  page,  the  right 
hand  page  can  conveniently  be  used  for  extending  the  record  for  the 
following  years,  and  the  record  as  a whole  can  be  kept  in  perma- 
nent form,  not  so  likely  to  be  lost  as  if  made  out  on  single  sheets 
of  paper. 

(e)  For  the  sake  of  simplicity,  the  costs  of  taxes,  insurance  and 
repairs  are  listed  under  running  expenses  (Blank  C). 

(f)  To  figure  “depreciation”  for  any  year,  add  together  the  last 
year’s  “present  value,”  and  the  cost  of  new  equipment  purchased 
this  year,  and  subtract  this  year’s  ‘‘present  value.” 

(g)  The  method  of  figuring  here  shown  may  be  modified  when 
desired  to  suit  any  particular  case,  but  in  most  cases,  will  be  found 
suitable  for  use  in  its  present  form.  To  figure  annual  costs  cor- 
rectly, it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  all  bills,  statements,  receipts, 
and  expenditure  records  be  preserved  until  the  end  of  the  year. 


FIVE  BLANKS  FOR  FACTORY  USE 


Blank  A. — Value  Each  Year,  and  Annual  Charges  on  Factory  and 

Land 

(For  explanation,  see  Table  VI). 


Description 

Year 

built 

or 

bought 

Fii-st 

cost 

(a) 

Life: 

years 

Annual 

depre- 

ciation 

Year 

Year 

Year 

Present 

value 

Present 

value 

Pr  sent 
value 

Enr*tn»‘y 

$ 

$ 

$ 

8 

$ 

Addition  to  factory, 
or  improvement  — 

$ . 

i 

8 

$ 

Addition  to  factory, 
or  improvement . . . 

$ 

1 

$ 

$ 

S 

» 

Present  value  of  fac- 
tory and  improve- 
ments   

$ 

$ .... 

$ 

8 

j 

1 

Land 

8 

None 

8 

8 

$ 

Total  value  of  land  and  buildinirs  each  yea 

,r 

8 

$ 

$ 

Annual  charjtes  on  factory  and  land; 

Interest  at per  cent  on  total  present  value  

Anniinl  flpnreeiatir>n  on  far.t.nrv  value 

$ 

’ 

$ 

Repairs  each  year  (t 

0 ■ 

Total  annual  charere  (c)  (d) 

$ 

* 

$ 

18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  321 


Blank  B.— Value  Each  Year,  and  Annual  Charges  on  Equipment 

OP  Factory 


Description 

Year 

bought 

First 

cost 

Life 

in 

years 

Annual 

deprecia- 

tion 

1 

Year 

1 

Year 

Year 

Present 

value 

Present 

value 

Present 

value 

$ 

$ 

$ 

S 

$ 

Gas  engine 

Vat.  No.  1 

Vat  No.  2 

Vat  No.  3 

Press  No  1 

Pres>  N<^  ^ 

Hoop>,  Daisy  . 

Hoops,  FlaU 

Hoops,  Y.  A 

1 

Hoops,  L.  H.. . 
Hoops  Prints 

.... 

Mill  ’ 

Curd  knives 

Tinwfl.i'fi  

Tin  wa  rp  

1 

T]  n wp  1‘p 

Separator . ....... 

W hpy  va  t,  .... 

Wl)py  t k . 

Whpy  pnmps.  . . . 

Wkpy  pipps 

Other  items 

Totals 

$ 

s 

$ 

Annual  charges  on  equipment: 

Tntorocf  Qt.  n^r  ppnt,  rm  nrftspnt,  va.liiA  . 

$ 

1 

S .... 

Depreciation  for 
Repairs  during  : 

current  year(f 

i7Aar  . 

) 

S 

$ 

$ 

$ 

$ 

$ 

Total  charges  on  equipment  for  ye 

jar 

$ 

i 

s 

Cheesemakers  Save  by  Figuring  Costs 


19 


Blank  C. — Cost  op  Cheesemaking  Supplies,  and  Incidental 
Expenses,  for  Each  Year 


Supplies 


Year 


Year 


Year 


Quantity 


Value 


Quantity 


Value 


Quantity 


Value 


Boxes,  style 

Boxes,  style 

Boxes,  style 

Bandages 

Bandages 

Bandages 

Circles  

Press  cloths 

Extract 

Color 

Salt 

Washing  powder 

Brushes 

Paint 

Other  items 


Power 

Coal 

Wool 

Gasoline 

Oil  and  grease 

Electricity 

Other  items... 


OMce 

Telephone . . 

I^rinting 

Postage 

Blank  books 

Taxes 

Insurance.. . 
Other  items. 


Labor 

Helper 

Other  items, 


Total $ $ %. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  321 


Blank  D. — Summary  of  Costs  of  Making  Cheese  at  Factory 


1 Year 

Year 

1 

1 Year 

Chargre  on  factory  (Table  A) 

S 

$ 

$ . 

Charg-e  on  equipment  (Tafcfte  B) 

1 

1 

Charge  for  supplies  (Table  C) 

i 

Total  of  all  charges  (a) 

$ 

Jh 1 

$ 

“Gross  Income”  for  year  (b) 

$ 

® 1 

s ! 

$ 

(Subtracting  (a)  from  (b). 

“Labor  Income”  for  year 

$ 

$ 

s ... 

Pounds  of  cheese  made 

$ 

g 

$ 

Labor  income,  per  lb.  of  cheese 

g 

« 

$ 

1 

Note.  “Gross  Income”  means  all  money  received  by  factory  op- 
erator as  pay  for  making  cheese  and  skimming  whey  cream,  pur- 
chase of  supplies,  etc. 

“Labor  Income”  means  the  money  which  the  operator  has  left  to 
pay  himself  for  his  year’s  work,  after  meeting  all  expenses  and 
charges.  This  is  sometimes  called  the  operator’s  profit  for  the 
year,  but  a better  name  for  it  is’  “labor  income”,  since  this  is  less 
likely  to  be  misunderstood.  If  the  “labor  income”  is  too  small,  and 
should  be  larger,  the  necessary  price  for  making  cheese  may  be 
figured  as  shown  below. 

Blank  E. — Figuring  a Price  to  Yield  a Larger  Labor  Income 


Year 

Year 

Year 

Charge  on  facto I'y  ( Table  A) 

s 

$ 

$ 

Charge  on  equipment  (Table  B) 

Charge  for  supplies  (Table  C) 

Add  labor  income  desired 

$ 

$ 

s 

Total  necessary  income 

$ 

Pounds  cheese  made  in  year 

. . . pounds 

. . . pounds 

. . . [)Ounds 

Dividing  gives  necessary  price  per  pound,  in  case 

the  maker  receives  no  whey  cream  money 

c 

c 

c 

Year 

Year 

Year 

Total  necessary  income,  (as  above) 

s 

S 

S — 

Sub  ract  whey  cream  income 

1 

S 

S 

Leaves  necessary  income  for  making  cheese 

$ 

$ 

Pounds  cheese  made  in  year 

. . . pounds 

. . . pounds 

...  pounds 

Dividing  gives  necessary  price  for  making  

c 

; c 1 

c 

Note:  In  deciding  on  a price  for  making  for  the  coming  year,  it  is 

necessary  to  consider  probable  prices  of  labor  and  supplies,  the  cost 
of  necessary  repairs  and  improvements,  and  any  probable  increase 
or  decrease  in  the  milk  supply,  and  cheese  output. 


Accounting  systems  vary  but  the  plan  here  suggested 
may  easily  be  modified  to  suit  conditions  at  any  fac- 
tory or  to  meet  the  ideas  of  any  maker. 

The  essential  fact  worth  emphasis  in  this  subject  is: 

SELLING  PRICE  — COST  = PROFITS 

but  without  accurate  knowledge  of  costs  there  can  be 
no  certainty  as  to  profits  so  that  they  may  degenerate 
even  into  a loss. 

Only  with  definite  knowledge  as  to  costs  is  a maker 
able  to  substantiate  his  demand  for  higher  wages. 
With  the  growth  of  the  cheese-making  industry,  bet- 
ter trained  men  are  required  for  the  more  important 
positions  and  a knowledge  of  methods  for  accurately 
figuring  costs  is  one  important  item  which  no  maker 
can  afford  to  neglect. 


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December,  1920 


Marketing 


Federations 


y#0HSi^^ 

^WEI?AT10}< 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
MADISON 


DIGEST 


Middlemen  are  of  two  general  kinds:  Those  who  market  products 

but  do  not  store  them  and  those  who  specialize  in  storing  surplus 
supplies.  Pages  3-4 

Because  of  seasonal  surplus  a portion  of  each  kind  of  farm  pro- 
ducts must  be  held  over  in  one  way  or  another  by  storing  until  they 
are  needed.  Pages  4-5 

Either  by  waiting  or  borrowing,  farmers  who  federate  for  market- 
ing purposes  must  face  and  solve  problems  of  adequate  financing. 

. Page  6 

Federated  local  organizations  may  successfully  feed  markets  and 
stabilize  prices  where  individual  locals  cannot.  Page  6 

The  Wisconsin  Cheese  Producers’  Federation  has  grown  out  of  ex- 
periment and  experience.  It  serves  as  an  example  to  be  followed  in 
the  federating  of  other  marketing  locals  in  the  state.  Pages  7-10 

Federations  depend  for  success  upon  a definite  and  adequate  sup- 
ply of  farm  products  as  a starting  point.  But  dependable  and  ex- 
tensive market  connections  are  equally  important.  Pages  11-12 

Pidces  cannot  be  stabilized  by  federations  until  they  handle  the 
major  part  of  any  given  product  and  can  hold  the  surplus  off  the 
markets  until  needed.  The  feeding  of  products  to  markets,  like  the 
feeding  of  water  in  an  irrigation  system,  is  essential  to  price  stabili- 
zation. Pages  12-14 

The  Cheese  Federation  assembles  cheese  from  120  factories  in  13 
counties  and  has  made  steady  growth.  Pages  14-15 

Cheese  is  distributed  in  37  states  by  the  Federation,  thus  proving 
that  farmers  of  Wisconsin  can  accomplish  w'hat  they  have  long  de- 
sired to  do.  Pages  15-16 

The  costs  of  this  cooperative  marketing  federation  have  been 
steadily  reduced  and  amount  to  only  1.4  cents  per  dollar  of  sales. 

Pages  17-18 

Two  outstanding  features  of  the  Federation  are  eflaqient  manage- 
ment and  financial  returns.  The  organization  and  its  management 
because  of  experience,  market  connections,  and  efficiency  would,  if 
enough  cheese  were  handled,  lead  to  price  stabilization  so  far  as  this 
is  possible.  Pages  19-2  0 


Marketing  by  Federations 

Theodore  Macklin 

Many  farmers  of  Wisconsin  would  like  to  have  their  products 
marketed  by  their  own  cooperatively  employed  middlemen.  In 
the  past,  agitation  along  this  line  has  resulted  in  numerous, 
small,  local  marketing  concerns.  Alone,  however,  these  discon- 
nected local  cheese  factories,  creameries,  livestock  shipping  as- 
sociations and  other  companies  have  been  unable  to  do  more  than 
influence  conditions  locally.  But  farmers  desire  to  accomplish 
more  than  this.  They  want  to  control,  so  far  as  possible,  both 
local  and  terminal  conditions.  Their  ambition  is  to  build  up  a 
system  which  will  enable  farmers  to  retain  ownership  of  their 
products  until  consumers  need  them.  This  they  can  accomplish 
only  by  having  their  own  middlemen.  Farmers  are  weary  of  a 
system  in  which  farm  products  unavoidably  pass  into  other  peo- 
ple’s hands  at  low  prices  only  to  be  held  until  needed  by  con- 
sumers and  then  sold  at  much  higher  prices. 

Functions  of  Middlemen 

Without  finding  out  just  what  the  different  kinds  of  middle- 
men actually  do  with  the  products  they  buy,  the  farmer  con- 
siders them  all  part  of  a bad  system.  As  a matter  of  fact,  some 
marketing  concerns  do  no  storing.  Having  an  established  pat- 
ronage they  must  keep  on  buying  products  at  whatever  price  in 
order  to  deliver  the  goods  to  their  customers.  These  concerns, 
in  fact,  care  very  little  how  high  or  how  low  the  price  may  be. 
They  buy  just  as  much  one  time  as  another  because  they  deal 
with  retailers  who  must  have  the  goods  for  their  customers. 
Such  middlemen  cover  their  expenses  and  make  their  profits 
from  a rather  fixed  and  narrow  margin.  To  make  much  money 
out  of  this  small  margin  they  must  sell  immense  quantities  to 
retailers  or  to  other  regular  customers. 

Another  kind  of  middleman  specializes  almost  entirely  on  the 
holding  of  farm  products  from  the  time  that  farmers  sell, 
shortly  after  they  are  produced,  until  consumers  want  them. 
Naturally,  these  middlemen  desire  to  pay  as  little  as  possible. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  322 


They  are  equally  anxious  to  be  able  to  sell  these  goods  at  the 
highest  possible  prices.  Unlike  the  first  kind  of  middlemen, 
whose  volume  of  business  is  assured  and  who  are  almost  certain 
to  make  reasonable  money,  this  second  kind  of  middlemen  must 
take  a chance  in  buying  with  the  possibility  of  either  heavy 
losses  or  handsome  gains.  They  must  risk  their  judgment  that 
prices  will  be  enough  higher  later  on  to  justify  them  in  paying 
what  they  do  when  buying.  Virtually  all  farm  products  are 
harvested  and  become  available  on  farms  in  greater  quantities 


FIG.  1.— MAIN  OFFICE  AND  PRINCIPAL  WAREHOUSE  OF  THE  WISCONSIN 
CHEESE  PRODUCERS’  ASSOCIATION 

Almost  12,000,000  pounds  of  cheese  were  assembled  at  and  distributed  from  thisi  ware- 
house at  Plymouth,  Wisconsin,  during^  1919. 

during  a part  of  the  year  than  can  be  consumed  in  the  same 
period.  During  the  balance  of  the  year,  of  course,  less  of  these 
products  are  produced  than  consumers  require.  If  part  of  the 
plentiful  supply,  during  summer  and  fall,  were  not  stored  un- 
til winter  and  spring,  people  would  have  to  overeat  during  the 
first  period,  while  in  the  rest  of  the  year  they  would  be  unable 
to  secure  sufficient  food. 

Need  for  Storing  Farm  Products 


That  someone  must  serve  the  public  by  storing  farm  products 
is  a fact  of  utmost  importance.  The  farmer  mistakenly  con- 
demns the  service  when  in  reality  he  is  dissatisfied  merely  be- 


Marketing  by  Federations 


5 


cause  this  service  is  controlled  by  private  middlemen.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  a number  of  people  may  store  products.  The 
farmers  may  store  some  on  their  farms.  But  because  farmers 
do  not  store  the  greater  part  of  the  seasonal  surplus  of  products 
it  is  inevitable  that  middlemen  should  be  in  the  storage  busi- 
ness. It  is  equally  certain  that  if  private  middlemen  are  to 
render  this  service  they  will  endeavor  to  buy  at  low  prices  and 
to  sell  at  high  prices. 

Farmers,  however,  are  finding  out  that  not  all  farm  products 
can  be  as  cheaply  stored  on  farms  as  they  can  be  in  warehouses. 
Since  there  are  three  important  kinds  of  middlemen — the  pri- 
vate, the  cooperative,  and  the  governmental — farmers  who  de- 
sire to  cooperate  are  legally  and  morally  just  as  much  entitled 
to  develop  marketing  enterprises  as  anyone. 

Federations  Subject  to  Losses  Same  as  Private  Concerns 

In  establishing  warehouses  and  in  securing  managers  to  mar- 
ket their  products,  however,  farmers  are  in  reality  employing 
middlemen  on  a salary  rather  than  a profit  basis.  Precisely 
the  same  methods  of  marketing  are  followed  by  both  private 
and  cooperative  agencies.  Risks,  due  to  changing  prices,  which 
private  agencies  have  been  accustomed  to  take,  must  also  be 
taken  by  cooperative  agencies.  Farmers  should  realize,  there- 
fore, that  in  marketing  products  through  the  efforts  of  their  own 
federations  they  must  be  willing  to  be  hit  by  losses  just  as 
private  middlemen  are  hit  at  times.  Formation  of  cooperative 
federations  shifts  upon  a group  of  farmers  the  responsibilities 
and  problems  formerly  confronting  private  middlemen.  To  the 
extent  that  farmers  are  willing  to  assume  these  duties  and  risks 
loyally  and  continuously  with  full  recognition  of  the  obligations, 
they  have  prospects  of  success.  They  might  well  plan  to  estab- 
lish cooperative  federations  to  hold  products  from  harvest  time 
until  they  are  needed  by  consumers,  instead  of  leaving  this  phase 
of  marketing  to  private  middlemen.  With  such  a system  all 
those  products  which  must  be  held  over,  but  which  cannot  wisely 
be  farm-stored,  may  be  stored  by  cooperative  middlemen. 
Farmers  then  will  not  be  obliged  to  part  with  their  products  at 
depressed  and  unnecessarily  low  prices.  They  will  not  part  with 
their  products  at  all  in  fact,  until  they  are  sold  for  continuous 
movement  to  consumers. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  322 


Financing  Surplus  Hold-over 

If  farmers  wish  to  hold  over  surplus  portions  of  their  products 
to  be  marketed  by  hired  middlemen  instead  of  by  private  con- 
cerns, they  must  be  willing  to  (1)  delay  payment  to  themselves 
until  the  products  have  been  sold  and  cash  received,  or  (2)  they 
must  obtain  loans  based  upon  their  stored  goods  as  security. 
In  the  past,  private  middlemen  have  provided  the  funds  to  pay 
farmers  for  their  products.  If  farmers  expect  to  market  prod- 
ucts cooperatively  and  are  unwilling  or  unable  to  wait  for  their 
returns,  they  are  obliged  to  cope  with  the  problem  of  financing. 
While  most  farmers,  hitherto,  have  preferred  to  accept  lower 
prices  rather  than  risk  holding  products  for  an  uncertain  future 
price,  there  are  certain  advantages  to  be  gained  by  having  this 
service  provided  cooperatively. 

Advantages  op  Cooperative  Service 

By  delaying  the  sale  of  products  until  they  are  to  go  forward 
to  consumers,  farmers  can  prevent  a large  part  of  the  yearly 
fluctuation  in  the  prices  of  farm  products.  The  temporary  sur- 
plus of  certain  seasons  would  be  stored  cooperatively  instead  of 
going  onto  the  market  as  at  present  with  the  common  seasonal 
falling  of  prices  as  a result. 

In  coming  to  realize  that  local  marketing  associations  are  too 
small  to  hold  farm  products  until  they  are  needed  for  direct 
movement  to  consumers,  farmers  are  learning  the  importance  of 
having  marketing  federations.  A marketing  system,  if  it  is  to  be 
really  efficient,  must  control  the  movement  of  farm  products 
from  farm  to  consumer.  It  must  deliver  goods  in  good  variety,  in 
proper  quality  and  quantity,  and  when  consumers  want  them.  It 
must  also  give  the  farmer  the  greatest  possible  proportion  of  what 
the  consumer  pays.  To  obtain  this  ideal,  farmers  have  learned 
that  they  must  bind  their  local  associations  into  powerful  united 
organizations  employing  the  most  expert  management  to  be  had. 
To  feed  farm  products  to  the  market,  without  creating  either 
glutted  conditions  or  shortages,  requires  very  large  scale  market- 
ing. This  means  that  the  marketing  concern  which  does  this 
feeding  must  have  a tremendous  volume  of  business.  To  secure 
such  a great  volume  of  products  and  in  turn  to  feed  it  to  the 
market,  makes  necessary  both  numerous  local  branches  for  as- 


Marketing  by  Federations 


7 


sembling  the  products  and  numerous  distributing  connections  for 
disposing  of  them.  The  fully  developed  federation  is  able  to 
accomplish  these  objects  where  disconnected  local  associations 
are  absolutely  unable. 

Cooperation  in  Other  States 

Cooperative  marketing  federations  are  being  successfully  de- 
veloped by  farmers  in  many  sections  of  the  United  States.  Up 
to  the  present  the  federations  in  California,  such  as  the  California 
Fruit  Growers  Exchange,  the  California  Prune  and  Apricot 
Growers,  Inc.,  The  California  Associated  Raisin  Co.,  and  many 
others  have  been  the  most  widely  known.  Following  the  lead  of 
these  older  federations,  farmers  in  California  are  now  united, 
both  in  local  and  in  federated  organizations,  to  market  various 
kinds  of  large  and  small  fruits,  nuts,  eggs,  poultry,  milk,  rice  and 


table  I.— growth  of  WISCONSIN  CHEESE  PRODUCERS’  FEDERATION 
SHOWN  BY  QUANTITY  OF  CHEESE'  HANDLED  EACH  YEAR 


Year 

Number  of 
factories 

Pounds  of  cheese 
received  from 
factories 

Pounds  of  cheese  re- 
ceived from  factories 
each  year  for  every 
100  pounds  received  in 
1914 

1914  

45 

6,125,480 

7,558,796 

7,490,020 

8,981,308 

8,522,509 

14,098,021 

100.0 

123.4 

1915  

43 

1916  

45 

122.3 

1917  

56 

146.6 

1918  

63 

139.1 

1919  

120 

230.1 

other  products.  These  federations  are  actually  doing  what  many 
conservative  people  have  regarded  for  years  as  impossible  for 
farmers  to  accomplish.  In  the  light  of  their  success  it  is  no 
wonder  that  farmers  of  Wisconsin  and  other  states  are  looking 
to  California  for  inspiration  and  guidance. 

Wisconsin  Cheese  Federation  Splendid  Local  Example 

Wisconsin  farmers  have  within  their  home  state  a federation  of 
notable  success.  What  it  is  doing  for  the  producers  of  American 
cheese,  a similar  federation  could  easily  do  for  the  producers  of 
foreign  cheese.  Still  other  federations  could  be  created  by  com- 
bining as  separate  groups  local  cooperative  creameries,  livestock 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  322 


shipping  associations,  fruit  marketing  concerns,  and  the  other 
farmer  marketing  companies.  Farmers  might  have  a cooperative 
feed  warehouse  in  each  town,  and  a central  federation  including 
all  of  the  local  warehouses.  The  cooperative  federation  could 


FIG.  2.— WISCO'NSI'N’S  OUTPUT  OP  AMERICAN  CHEESE 

More  than  235,000,000  pounds  of  American  cheese  and  almost  70,000,000  pounds  of 
brick,  Swiss  and  limburger  cheese  were  produced  in  the  state  during  1919.  Cheese 
is  a leading  Wisconsin  product  and  its  marketing  should  be  the  most  eflBcient 
possible. 


'then  mix  feeds  and  distribute  them  to  the  local  warehouses.  High 
testing  cotton  seed  meal  could  be  purchased  directly  from  Texas 
and  other  states  having  high  testing  protein  concentrates.  Farm- 
ers now  supplying  cream  to  a number  of  small  buyers  could  es- 
tablish at  their  respective  shipping  points  a single  cooperative 


^Iarketing  by  Federations 


9 


cream  station.  Each  of  these  in  turn  would  be  part  of  a cream 
station  federation.  This  federation  could  then  operate  a coopera- 
tive centralized  creamery  and  market  butter  in  the  cheapest  man- 
ner. 


FIG.  3.— AMOUNT  OF  AMERICAN  CHEESE  MARKETED  BY  FEDERATION 

Ttie  Federation  in  1919  distributed  about  14,000,000  pounds  of  American  cheese, 
which  is  only  6 per  cent  of  the  state’s  output.  To  bring  about  greater  eflSciency 
and  stabilii-y  in  cheese  marketing,  necessitates  that  it  should  do  a much  larger  vol- 
uttne  of  business. 


Wisconsin  farmers,  in  federating  their  local  marketing  con- 
cerns, have  much  of  interest  to  read  in  the  experience  and  prog- 
ress of  the  Wisconsin  Cheese  Producers’  Federation.  Because 
it  is  both  a success  and  a home  product  it  may  well  be  taken  as 
a guide  by  the  farmers  of  the  state.  Instead  of  being  obliged  to 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  322 


search  in  distant  states  and  countries  for  plans  of  organization 
and  for  advice,  Wisconsin  cooperators  may  now  examine  the 
Cheese  Federation  which  is  well  adapted  to  their  needs.  The  dif- 
ficulties which  have  been  met  and  overcome,  the  problems  which 
are  unsolved,  the  method  of  organization,  and  the  success  won,  all 
mean  much  to  those  who  will  sooner  or  later  federate  the  cooper- 
ative concerns  marketing  other  products. 

How  THE  Federation  Was  Organized 

Before  the  cheese  producers  of  Sheboygan  County  formed  their 
infant  federation,  there  was  much  dissatisfaction.  The  farmers 
felt  certain  that  the  Plymouth  Board  prices  were  manipulated 
downward  for  the  special  advantage  of  its  members.  They  were 


TABLE  II.— INCREASE  IN  VALUE  OF  FEDERATION’S  BUSINESS  SHOWN  BY 
TOTAL  ANNUAL  PAYMENTS  TO  FACTORIES 


Year 

Dollars  paid  to 
factories  for 
cheese 

Dollars  paid  to 
factories  each 
year  for  each 
dollar  paid  in 
1914 

Net  price  per 
pound  for  cheese 
paid  to  fac- 
tories 

Per  cent  increase 
over  year 
1914 

1914  

855,328.64 

1,115,795.20 

1.00 

14.302 

1915  

1.30 

15,085 

5.4 

1916  

1,300,520.24 

1.53 

17.567 

22.8 

1917  

2,144,005.06 

2.51 

24.087 

68.4 

1918  

2,258,163.73 

2.64 

27.052 

89.1 

1919  

4,243,938.56 

4.96 

30.108 

116.4 

sure  that  private  cheese  buyers  were  unfair  in  refusing  to  pay  for 
fractional  weights  of  cheese.  They  were  also  convinced  that 
many  unfair  practices  were  used  by  cheese  buyers  and  cheese 
makers  to  the  detriment  of  the  producers.  Out  of  the  general 
desire  for  some  sort  of  action  to  improve  these  conditions,  She- 
boygan County  cheese  producers — led  by  Henry  Krumrey — or- 
ganized their  federation.  At  first  they  had  a membership  of  45 
local  cheese  factory  associations.  A manager  was  employed  to 
supervise  the  handling  of  cheese  at  a warehouse  in  Plymouth  and 
to  sell  cheese  assembled  at  this  point.  On  April  1st,  1914,  the 
new  management  began  to  receive  cheese  and  was  faced  with  the 
problem  of  selling  it. 


Marketing  by  Federations 


11 


Marketing  Problems- 

As  a new  concern,  it  had  a volume  of  business  assured  but  no 
outlet  for  its  cheese.  A marketing  federation  must  have  both  a 
source  from  which  products  are  drawn  and  outlets  to  forward 
them  to  consumers.  It  was  not  surprising  then  that  this  new 
cheese  federation  was  met  by  serious  problems.  First,  it  was 
obliged  to  pay  farmers  for  cheese  before  the  cheese  was  sold. 
Second,  it  lacked  connections  which  would  enable  it  actually  to 
sell  cheese.  With  no  outlets  of  its  own,  it  was  forced  to  sell  to 
other  cheese  concerns  which  had  contact  with  consuming  centers. 
It  was  unavoidable,  therefore,  that  the  cheese  federation  should 
sell  most  of  its  cheese  during  the  first  few  years  to  large  packers 
and  others  with  numerous  and  dependable  cheese  customers. 
This,  however,  was  remedied  as  soon  as  the  management  was 
able  to  go  out  and  solicit  its  own  regular  customers.  How  much 
this  customer  trade  has  been  built  up  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
during  1919  less  than  6 per  cent  of  the  Federation’s  cheese  was 
shipped  to  the  five  larger  packers.  The  early  lack  of  market 
connections  which  was  the  most  serious  weakness  of  the  Federa- 
tion had  been  largely  overcome. 


TABLE  III.— RECEIPTS  OF  CHEESE  BY  THE  WISCONSIN  CHEESE  PRODUCERS’ 
FEDERATION  FROM  VARIOUS  COUNITES— 1919 


County 

Num^:>€r  of 
factories 

Pounds  of 
cheese  sent 
to  federation 

Per  cent 

Warehouse  at 
which  cheese 
was  received 

Sheboygan  

37 

5,. 533, 906 

39.7 

Plymouth 

Outagamie  

12 

1,366,733 

9.8 

Plymouth 

Calumet  

9 

1,340,158 

9.0 

Plymouth 

Brown  

9 

1,096,286 

7.8 

Plymouth 

Manitowoc  

9 

825,270 

6.0 

Plymouth 

Washington  

4 

729,020 

5.2 

Plymouth 

Winnebago  

6 

706,189 

5.1 

Plymouth 

Waupaca  

2 

205,054 

1.5 

Plymouth 

Fond  du  Lac  

2 

123,386 

.9 

Plymouth 

Kewaunee  

1 

05,494 

.5 

Plymouth 

SauE  

15 

1,202,271 

8.7 

Spring  Green 

Iowa  

7 

631,111 

4.5 

Spring  Green 

Dane  

2 

87,332 

.6 

Spring  Green 

Crawford  

1 

10,790 

.1 

Spring  Green 

Grand  total  

115 

13,923,000 

Received  at  Plymouth 

90 

11,991,496 

86.1 

Received  at  Spring  Green.. 

2T> 

13L9 

12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  322 


Problems  of  Distribution 

As  the  Federation  established  enough  of  its  own  customers  to 
take  all  its  cheese  and  thereby  become  independent  in  selling,  it 
faced  increasingly  severe  and  unfair  competition  on  the  supply 
or  membership  end.  A cooperative  marketing  concern  rapidly 
growing  both  in  assembling  products  and  in  distributing  them 
spelled  eventual  ruin  to  the  many  private  concerns  which  had 
marketed  the  cheese  for  the  local  factories  before.  Much  un- 
fair competition  apparently  developed  in  the  struggle  for  sur- 
vival between  the  federation  and  its  private  competitors.  * 

Growth  op  Federation 

In  spite  of  obstacles,  the  Cheese  Federation  has  made  sub- 
stantial growth.  During  1919,  it  handled  6 per  cent  or  14,098,- 
021  pounds  of  the  total  of  235,740,173  pounds  of  American 
cheese  produced  in  Wisconsin.  Far  more  important  than  vol- 
ume of  business,  it  has  shown  that  Wisconsin  farmers  can  unite 
their  local  associations.  It  has  proved  that  such  federations  can 
hire  experts  who  will  efficiently  sell  products  in  consuming 
markets.  Furthermore,  it  has  made  Wisconsin  farmers  think  in 
terms  of  comprehensive  marketing  systems.  While  this  under- 
taking has  not  done  all  that  farmers  want  to  accomplish,  yet 
it  has  gone  as  far  as  its  volume  of  business  permits. 

Storage  of  Cheese  Surplus 

As  yet  the  Federation  has  not  tried  to  hold  over  until  winter 
the  surplus  cheese  of  spring  and  summer.  First,  it  markets  too 
small  a fraction  of  the  cheese  of  the  state,  to  be  able  to  feed  the 
market  and  thereby  stabilize  prices.  In  answer  to  the  farmers’ 
question,  “Why  doesn’t  the  Federation  prevent  low  prices  in 
summer?”  there  is  but  one  answer.  Before  it  can  hope  to  do 
this,  the  federation  must  be  large  enough  to  keep  the  surplus 
cheese  of  the  flush  season  off  the  speculator’s  market  and  hold 
it  for  the  effective  consumers’  market  during  the  following  win- 
ter. That  is,  if  farmers  hope  to  do  away  with  the  drop  in  cheese 
prices  that  usually  comes  in  summer,  they  must  have  a federa- 

* See  evidence  obtained  by  the  Wisconsin  Division  of  Markets  and  rulings 
in  Division’s  subsequent  orders. 


Marketing  by  Federations 


13 


tion  so  large  that  it  can  prevent  the  temporary  glutting  of  any 
market  by  holding  the  surplus  cheese  until  winter  before  selling. 
A large  part,  or  even  all,  of  this  surplus  is  being  stored  at  pres- 
ent by  private  agencies.  The  farmers  contend  that  there  is  man- 
ipulation to  get  this  cheese  at  low  prices.  As  a matter  of  fact, 
if  prices  were  not  relatively  low  these  speculators  would  not  buy 
cheese  to  be  held  over  for  winter  sale.  It  is  the  great  surplus 


TABLE  IV.— PRIMARY  SHIPMENTS  BY  WISCONSIN  CHEESE  PRODUCERS’  FED- 
ERATION TO  VARIOUS  STATES— 1919 


States  to  which  100,000  pounds  or  more  of 
cheese  were  shipped 

Pounds  of  cheese 

Per  cent 

Illinois  

3,178,912 
1,381,285 
1,287,235 
783,591 
626,862 
557,124 
536,830 
510,679 
487,381 
468,189 
456,855 
452,050 
395,435 
363,781 
321,725 
198,736 
176,388 
165,975 
163,423 
130,750 
« 124,594 

108,691 

22.64 

New  York  

9.84 

"PprinsylvaTii  . 

9.17 

5.58 

TnfHanf^  

Maryland  

4.46 

Virginia  

3.97 

Wisconsin  

3.82 

Michigan  

3.64 

Missouri  

3.47 



3.33 

Ma^saphnspt.ts  

3.25 

West  Virginia  

3.22 

Tennessee  

2.82 

Louisiana  

2.59 

Georgia  

2.29 

0?^rnlinfl  

1.42 

California  

1.26 

Florida  

1.18 

Texas  

1.16 

Alabama  

.93 

North  Carolina  

.89 

Ohio  

.77 

To  above  22  states 

12,875,491 

1,160,800 

91.70 

To  other  15  states,  Dist.  of  Columbia  and  miscel- 
laneous   

8.30 

(rrand  total  

14,036,291 

100.00 

during  the  flush  producing  season,  out  of  all  proportion  to  cur- 
rent use,  which  gives  the  speculator  his  chance.  The  only 
remedy  worth  considering  by  farmers  is  for  them  to  retain 
ownership  of  the  surplus  until  consumers  need  it.  This  in  turn 
can  be  done  only  through  a large,  powerful  federation  which 
really  feeds  the  market.  At  present  the  very  lack  of  this  organ- 
ization makes  it  unavoidable  for  farmers  to  glut  and  starve  the 
cheese  markets  periodically.  For  the  same  reason,  the  markets 
for  other  farm  products  are  periodically  either  oversupplied  or 
undersupplied. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  322 


Although  the  Cheese  Federation,  during  its  six  and  one  half, 
years  of  operation,  has  not  solved  all  the  problems  of  cheese 
marketing,  it  has  built  a firm  foundation  for  future  growth. 
Similar  early  stages  of  growth  must  be  passed  through  by  any 
new  federation  designed  to  market  other  products.  A brief  sur- 
vey of  its  progress  toward  successively  lower  operating  costs  will 
surprise  those  who  have  been  too  hasty  in  criticism.  It  will  em- 
phasize that  the  growth  of  successful  cooperative  marketing 
federations  is  gradual  and  that  too  much  should  not  be  ex- 
pected of  cooperation  in  a day. 

TABLE  V.— POUNI>S  OF  OHEESE  SOLD  TO  THE  FIVE  LAEGER  PACKERS  BY 
THE  WISCONSIN  CHEESE  PRODUCERS’  FEDERATION-1919 


Packer  company 

Pounds  of  cheese 

Per  cent  of  Feder- 
ation cheese  sales 

A 

50,932 

.36 

57,758 

.41 

n 

117,469 

.84 

D 

211,341 

1.50 

340,501 

2.43 

Total  to  packers 

778,001 

5.54 

Steady  Growth  of  Federation's  Business 

When  the  Federation  started  business  on  April  1st,  1914, 
cheese  began  coming  in  from  45  local  cheese  factories  in  and 
about  Sheboygan  County.  During  the  first  nine  months  of  op- 
eration 6,125,480  pounds  of  cheese  were  received.  The  cheese 
producers  marketed  $855,328  worth  of  their  product.  During 
the  following  two  years  the  Federation  held  its  own  in  spite  of 
many  difficulties ; and  in  1917  a period  of  substantial  growth  be- 
gan. By  1919,  as  Table  I indicates,  the  quantity  of  cheese 
handled  had  more  than  doubled  while  the  value  of  the  business 
had  increased  almost  four  times.  The  number  of  factories  send- 
ing cheese  had  increased  from  45  to  120.  As  the  Federation 
enlarged  not  only  in  the  quantity  and  value  of  its  products  but 
in  the  number  of  counties  from  which  cheese  came,  a warehouse 
at  Spring  Green  was  necessary.  The  map  shows  the  location  of 
each  of  the  115  factories  sending  cheese  to  the  Federation  dur- 
ing 1919.  The  sizes  of  the  black  dots  represent  the  relative 
quantities  of  cheese  sent  by  the  various  factories.  The  largest 


Marketing  by  Federations 


15 


contributed  313,383  pounds,  while  the  smallest  sent  only  4,514 
pounds.  As  Table  III  shows,  115  factories  averaging  121,070 
pounds  marketed  13,923,000  pounds  through  the  Federation. 


FIG.  4.— DISTRIBUTION  OF  FACTORIES  CONTRIBUTING  CHEESE  TO  FEDERA- 
TION 

These  factories  marketed  quantities  of  cheese  through  the  Federation  varying  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  black  dots.  The  quantity  per  factory  ranged  from  less  than 
5,000  pounds  to  more  than  300,000  pounds. 


Distribution  of  Sales 

When  most  of  the  business  of  the  Federation  came  from 
farmers  in  Shelioygan  County,  all  of  the  cheese  was  assembled 
at  the  Plymouth  warehouse.  During  1919  less  than  two-fifths 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  322 


of  the  business,  or  39.7  per  cent,  went  to  Plymouth  from  She- 
boygan County  farmers,  while  46.4  per  cent  of  the  cheese  went 
there  from  farmers  in  nine  counties  surrounding  Sheboygan 
County.  In  the  southwestern  part  of  Wisconsin  the  farmers  in 
four  counties  supplied  13.9  per  cent  of  the  cheese  received  by 
the  Federation.  This  was  assembled  at  the  Spring  Green  ware- 
house. As  the  expansion  spreads  to  other  parts  of  the  state  more 
warehouses  will  be  operated  to  facilitate  efficient  paraffining 
and  shipping  of  cheese.  Both  of  the  warehouses  at  present  are 
managed  by  the  Federation.  Cheese  is  shipped  from  them  to 
various  parts  of  the  United  States  on  orders  given  by  the  man- 
ager of  cheese  sales.  During  1919  over  14  million  pounds  of 
cheese  were  sold  in  37  states.  Table  IV  shows  that,  more  than 
100,000  pounds  were  shipped  to  each  of  22  states. 

Those  who  think  that  Illinois  received  more  than  one-fifth  of 
the  shipments  of  Federation  cheese  because  of  sale  to  the  five 
large  packers  will  find  (Table  V),  that  a total  of  less  than  6 
per  cent  went  to  these  companies.  Furthermore,  cheese  sales  to 
packers  were  usually  billed  to  other  points  than  Chicago.  It 
must  be  gratifying  to  these  cheese  producers  to  know  that  they 
are  actually  selling  cheese  through  their  own  company,  direct  to 
distributing  wholesalers  and  to  retailers.  In  doing  this  they 
have  built  up  a sound  and  independent  mechanism.  They  have 
founded  an  organization  which  will  bring  fundamental  improve- 
ments in  the  system  of  cheese  marketing  as  soon  as  cheese  pro- 
ducers expand  it  to  state-wide  importance. 


TABLE  VI.— PER  CENT  DISTRIBUTION  OP  MONET  RECEIVED  BY  THE  FED- 
ERATION FOR  CHEESE— 1914  TO  1919 


Year 

Payments  direct 
to  member 
factories 

Cost  of  freight 
factory  to 
Federation 

Actual  expenses 
of  Federation 

Savings  or 
profits 

1914  

97.6 

.4 

1.6 

.4 

1915  

97.5 

.3 

1.5 

.7 

1916  

97.5 

.3 

1.4 

.8 

1917  

97.7 

.2 

1.2 

.9 

1918  

97.0 

.3 

1.4 

1.3 

1919  

97.7 

.4 

1.4 

.5 

Note:  In  each  year  shown  the  number  of  cents  indicated  was  paid  out  of  every 
dollar  taken  in  by  the  Federation  for  cheese  sold. 


' Marketing  by  Federations 


IT 


Operating  Costs  Steadily  Decrea^d 

Wisconsin  farmers,  planning  to  establish  other  federations, 
will  find  their  greatest  encouragement  in  the  efficiency  of  this 
one.  Being  owned  by  farmers,  the  Federation  pays  all  its  re- 
ceipts, less  expenses,  to  the  account  of  the  local  cheese  factories. 
The  deduction  for  expenses  has  amounted  to  the  very  small  item 
of  1.2  cents  to  1.6  cents  out  of  every  dollar  received  for  cheese 
marketed.  Table  VI  shows  that  actual  expenses  were  highest 
during  1914,  the  first  year  of  operation.  This  was  before  the 
world  war  began  and  therefore  before  prices  of  labor,  materials 
and  supplies  had  increased.  Each  of  the  years,  1915,  1916,  and 
1917,  shows  a successive  decline  in  the  relative  expenses  of  oper- 
ating the  Federation  per  dollar  of  sales.  For  the  years  1918 
and  1919,  considering  the  great  increases  in  prices  of  supplies 
of  all  kinds,  it  is  remarkable  that  the  relative  expenses  of  the 
Federation  per  dollar  of  sales  were  kept  down  to  the  1916  level. 
The  relative  expense  of  maintaining  the  Federation’s  general 
office  and  sales-management  has  grown  less  and  less  each  year. 
During  six  years,  largely  on  account  of  increasing  business,  the 
cost  of  salaries  per  dollar’s  worth  of  sales  feU  from  one-half 
cent  to  little  more  than  one-fourth  cent. 

The  rising  prices  of  materials  and  supplies  on  the  other  hand 
caused  the  increased  expense  of  one-fifth  cent  per  dollar  of  sales, 
which  brought  the  1919  total  of  expense  back  to  the  1916  figure 
of  1.4  cents  per  dollar  of  sales.  Few,  if  any,  marketing  concerns 
can  duplicate  this  record  of  low  operating  costs  during  the  world 
war.  It  is  a tribute  of  the  highest  order  to  this  cooperative 
management. 

A popular  error  about  the  salaries  paid  for  management  may 
be  corrected  here.  The  Federation  handled  14,098,021  pounds 
of  cheese  in  1919  which  brought  a net  return  of  $4,243,986  to 
the  120  factories  with  their  membership  of  3,000  patrons.  The 
factories  contributed  an  averaige  of  117,483  pounds  of  cheese 
each  which  brought  a return  of  $35,366.  Each  patron  in  turn 
averaged  4,700  pounds  of  cheese  for  which  $1,414  was  received. 
To  have  this  4,700  pounds  of  cheese  made  out  of  the  milk  he 
supplied,  the  farmer  actually  paid  $117.50  to  the  local  cheese 
factory  organization.  Not  less  than  $50  of  this  sum  was  paid 
to  meet  the  cheesemaker ’s  net  salary.  To  have  this  same  4,700 
pounds  of  cheese  sold  the  farmer  actually  paid  the  Federation 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  322 


$19.80  of  which  only  60  cents  went  to  pay  the  manager’s  salary. 
These  figures  mean  that  it  costs  the  farmer  six  times  as  much 
to  have  his  cheese  made  at  his  local  factory  as  it  does  to  sell  it 
through  the  Federation.  They  also  mean  that  the  local  cheese- 
maker  ’s  net  salary  costs  the  farmer  83  times  as  much  as  does  the 
salary  of  the  manager  of  the  Federation. 


FIG.  5.— FEDERATION  MARKETED  CHEESE  THROUGHOUT  THE  UNITED 

STATES 

Each  of  22  states  received  more  than  100,000  pounds  of  cheese  from  Wisconsin 
factories  through  their  selling  organization— the  Federation.  About  3,200,000  pounds 
went  to  Illinois ; 780,000  pounds  to  Indiana;  and  108,000  pounds  to  Ohio.  See  Table 
IV. 


In  other  words,  the  manager  of  the  Federation  during  1919 
received  a salary  which  required  the  payment  of  only  60  cents 
from  each  farmer  patron,  or  exactly  five  cents  a month,  where- 
as, the  local  cheese-maker  received  $50  a year  from  each  farmer 
patron  or  more  than  four  dollars  a'  month.  The  Federation 
manager’s  salary  amounts  to  13/1000  of  a cent  a pound  of  cheese 
as  compared  with  the  local  cheese-maker’s  net  salary  of  more 
than  1 cent  a pound. 

Cost  of  Cooperative  Management 

Besides  keeping  costs  down  the  Federation  management  mar- 
keted cheese  at  prices  averaging  somewhat  above  the  Plymouth 
Board  prices.  This  was  possible  because  the  Federation  has 
built  up  its  own  cheese  customers  in  37  states  and  provided 


Marketing  by  Federations 


19 


them  regularly  with  cheese  of  high  quality.  Many  satisfied  cus- 
tomers have  stated  that  they  will  always  be  willing  to  pay  con- 
siderably above  Board  prices  for  high  quality  cheese  such  as  the 


TABLE  VII.— DOWNWARD  TREND  OP  FEDERATION  MANAGEMENT  COSTS— 

1914  TO  1919 


Tear 

Salaries 

other  ofiBce  and 
general  expenses 

Total  manage- 
ment expense 

1914  

.50 

.20 

.70 

1915  

.40 

.20 

.60 

1916  

.30 

.30 

.60 

1917  

.30 

.20 

.50 

1918  

.30 

.20 

.50 

1919  

.27 

.17 

.44 

Note:  In  each  year  shown  the  number  of  cents  indicated  was  paid  out  of  every 
dollar  taken  in  by  the  Federation  for  cheese  sold. 


Federation  sends.  In  these  two  fundamentals,  keeping  operat- 
ing costs  low  and  maintaining  standards  of  high  quality,  this 
and  other  federations  have  the  basis  for  indefinite  expansion  and 
for  giving  substantial  benefits  to  their  members.* 

Cheese  Producers  Profit  by  Federation 


That  the  Federation  has  been  profitable  to  cheese  producers 
during  its  six  years  of  operation  is  shown  by  its  substantial 

TABLE  VIII.— DISTRIBUTION  OP  WAREHOUSE  EXPENSES— 1914  TO  1919 


Tear 

Wages 

Supplies  and  other 
expenses 

Total  warehouse 
expense 

1914  

.40 

.50 

.90 

1915  

.40 

.60 

.90 

1916  

.40 

.40 

.80 

1917  

.30 

.40 

.70 

1918  

.30 

.60 

.90 

1919  

.36 

.60 

.96 

Note:  In  each  year  shown  the  number  of  cents  indicated  was  paid  out  of  every 
dollar  taken  in  by  the  Federation  for  cheese  sold. 


growth  both  in  members  and  in  quantity  of  cheese  handled. 
Moreover,  substantial  savings  or  profits  were  earned.  Dividends 
amounting  to  $42,000  have  been  paid.  The  treasury  holds 


•In  establishing  federations  to  market  such  products  as  butter,  fruit,  and 
livestock,  farmers  of  Wisconsin  will  get  direct  help  by  studying  the  Cheese 
Federation.  The  leaders  of  the  organization  will  gladly  give  suggestions 
about  organizing,  financing,  and  managing  a federation. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  322 


$38,000  of  undivided  savings  which  are  being  used  to  help  finance 
the  business.  Besides  this,  the  general  office  and  warehouse  at 
Plymouth,  worth  not  less  than  $75,000,  is  the  property  of  the 
Federation  and  has  been  earned  by  the  organization.  To  have 
accumulated  and  paid  out  aggregate  savings  or  profits  amount- 
ing to  more  than  $150,000  during  its  difficult,  beginning  stages 
is  sufficient  success  to  inspire  confidence.  This  saving  amounts 
to  more  than  one  quarter  of  a cent  on  every  pound  of  cheese 
handled  by  the  Federation  since  it  began  business;  and  it  had 
handled,  by  the  end  of  1919,  52,776,134  pounds  of  cheese. 


FIG.  0.— THE  FIRST  ADDITIONAL  DISTRICT  WAREHOUSE  OF  THE  FEDERATION 

When  the  farmer  members  of  25  local  cheese  factories  in  and  about  Spring  Green, 
Wisconsin,  Tvanted  to  have  their  cheese  marketed  by  the  Federation  this  warehouse 
was  built  to  accommodate  them. 


The  following  copy  of  the  revised  articles  of  Cooperative  As- 
sociation drawn  up  for  adoption  by  the  Cheese  Federation  con- 
stituency will  give  interested  persons  the  latest  information 
about  the  organization  of  federations.* 


*For  further  information  consult  or  write  to  any  of  the  follow'ing:  W'is- 

consin  Cheese  Producers'  Federation,  Plymuth,  Wisconsin ; Department  of 
Agricultural  Economics,  College  of  Agricuiture,  Madison,  Wisconsin ; Wiscon- 
sin Division  of  Markets,  State  Capital,  Madison,  Wisconsin. 


Marketing  by  Federations 


21 


ARTICLES  OP  COOPERATIVE  ASSOCIATION 


Know  All  Men  lyy  These  Pres- 
ents, That  the  undersigned  have 
associated  and  do  hereby  associate 
themselves  together  for  the  purpose 
of  forming  a Cooperative  Associa- 
tion under  sections  1786e — 1 to 
1786e — 17,  inclusive,  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin statutes,  and  do  hereby  make, 
sign,  and  agree  to.  the  following: 

Articles  of  Incorporation 
Article  I 

The  name  of  this  Association 
shall  be  Wisconsin  Cheese  Pro- 
ducers’ Federation,  and  its  prin- 
cipal place  of  business  shall  be  in 
the  city  of  Plymouth,  County  of 
Sheboygan,  State  of  Wisconsin, 
P.  O.  address,  Plymouth,  Wiscon- 
sin. 

Article  II 

The  business  and  purposes  or 
this  association  shall  be  to  buy 
and  sell,  or  act  as  agent  to  buy 
or  sell,  cheese  and  by-products;  ro 
manufacture  cheese  and  by-pro- 
ducts; to  buy  and  sell,  or  act  as 
agent  to  buy  or  sell,  cheese  factory 
and  creamery  equipment  and  sup- 
plies, to  manufacture  cheese  fac- 
tory and  creamery  equipment 
and  supplies;  to  own  and  oper- 
ate warehouses  and  cold  stor- 
ages; to  own  and  hold  stock  in 
any  corporation  or  cooperative 
association  within  the  limits  pre- 


scribed by  law;  to  buy,  lease, 
own,  sell,  exchange,  and  deal 
in  all  forms  of  property  neces- 
sary or  incident  to  the  tran- 
saction of  the  business  of  this  as- 
sociation; and  to  do  all  other 
things  necesary  or  incident  to  the 
transaction  of  the  business  of  this 
association. 

Article  III 

The  capital  stock  of  this  asso- 
ciation shall  be  

dollars,  which  shall  be  di- 
vided into  

shares  of  the  par  value  of 

dollars  each. 

Article  IV 

The  shares  of  capital  stock  of 
this  association  are  non-assessable. 

Article  V 

The  affairs  of  this  association 
shall  be  managed  by  a board  of 
seven  directors.  The  directors 
shall  be  elected  by  the  stockhold- 
ers of  the  association  at  such  time 
and  for  such  term  of  office  as 
the  by-laws  may  prescribe. 

Article  VI 

The  names  and  residences  or 
the  persons  forming  this  associa- 
tion are: 


BY-LAWS  OP  THE  WISCONSIN  CHEESE  PRODUCERS’ 
FEDERATION 


Article  I 

The  regular  annual  meeting  of 
the  stockholders  shall  be  held  on 
the  second  Thursday  of  February 
of  each  year.  The  president  of  the 
board  of  directors  may  call  special 
meetings  of  the  stockholders  up- 
on ten  days’  previous  notice 


i thereof  to  each  stockholder  by 
I publication  or  by  personal  serv- 
ice. 

The  president  of  this  associa- 
tion shall  call  a district  meeting 
at  each  warehouse  point  not  more 
than  thirty  days  prior  to  any  an- 
nual or  special  meeting  of  this 
association.  At  each  district  meet- 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  322 


ing  the  stockholders  shipping  to 
such  warehouse  point  may  elect 
one  delegate  for  each  ten  stocK- 
holders  or  for  any  lesser  number 
and  one  delegate  for  the  remain- 
ing fraction  of  the  whole  number 
of  stockholders.  Each  delegate 
at  the  stockholders’  meeting  (or 
his  appointee  in  his  absence) 
shall  be  entitled  to  cast  one  vote 
for  every  stockholder  represented 
by  him;  provided,  that  no  delegate 
shall  represent  more  than  ten 
stockholders. 

Voting  by  proxy  in  this  associa- 
tion shall  not  be  permittea,  ex- 
cept as  provided  herein. 


Article  II 

The  directors  shall  be  elected 
annually  at  the  regular  annual 
meeting  of  the  stockholders  and 
shall  hold  their  offices  for  one 
year  or  until  their  successors  are 
elected  and  qualified.  Every  ware- 
house point  shall  be  represented 
by  at  least  one  director.  No  per- 
son shall  be  a director  unless  he 
is  or  has  been  a milk  producer  and 
a member  of  a cooperative  cheese 
producers’  association. 

The  regular  meeting  of  the 
board  of  directors  shall  be  held 
within  ten  days  after  the  regular 
annual  meeting  of  the  stockhold- 
ers. The  secretary  of  the  board 
shall  call  special  meetings  thereof 
upon  order  of  the  president  or  of 
any  three  directors,  but  notice  of 
any  special  meeting  shall  be  given 
to  all  directors  not  joining  in  the  i 
call  therefor.  Every  meeting  of  j 
the  board  of  directors  shall  be  ! 
open  to  the  Director  of  the  Divi-  1 
sion  of  Markets  and  notice  of  I 
every  such  meeting  shall  be  given  i 
by  the  board  of  directors  to  said  | 
Director  of  the  Division  of  Mar- 
kets. 

The  directors  shall  elect  from 
their  number  a president,  vice- 
president,  secretary  and  a trea- 
surer, and  shall  employ  such 
salesmen,  inspectors  and  other  I 
employes  as  may  be  necessary  and  ; 
shall  fix  the  compensation  of  all  i 
officers  and  employes. 


The  directors  shall  require  any 
officer  or  employe  to  whom  funds 
of  the  association  are  entrusted  to 
furnish  bond. 

A majority  of  the  board  of 
directors  shall  constitute  a quo- 
rum for  the  transaction  of  busi- 
ness; but  a less  number  may  ad- 
journ from  day  to  day  upon  giv- 
ing notice  to  absent  members  of 
said  board  of  such  adjournment. 
Any  vacancy  occurring  in  the 
board  of  directors  shall  be  filled 
by  the  remaining  members  there- 
of. 


Article  III 

The  officers  of  this  association 
shall  be  a president,  vice-presi- 
dent, secretary  and  treasurer.  The 
duties  of  secretary  and  of  trea- 
surer may  be  performed  by  one 
and  the  same  person,  who,  in  such 
case,  shall  be  known  as  secretary- 
treasurer. 

The  principal  duties  of  the  pres- 
ident shall  be  to  preside  at  all 
meetings  of  the  stockholders  and 
of  the  board  of  directors  and  with 
said  board  to  have  general  super- 
vision of  the  affairs  of  the  asso- 
ciation. He  shall  sign  all  certifi- 
cates of  stock  and  all  contracts 
and  other  instruments;  provided 
that  the  board  of  directors  may 
authorize  any  officer  or  agent  of 
the  association  to  perform  this 
duty  unless  prohibited  by  law. 

The  principal  duties  of  the  vice 
presdent  shall  be  to  discharge  the 
duties  of  the  president  in  the 
event  of  the  absence  or  disability 
of  the  latter. 

The  principal  duties  of  the  sec- 
retary shall  be  to  keep  a true  and 
correct  record  of  the  proceedings 
of  the  board  of  directors,  and  to 
safely  and  systematically  keep  all 
books,  papers,  records  and  docu- 
ments belonging  to  the  association 
or  pertaining  to  the  business 
thereof.  He  shall  countersign  and 
affix  the  seal  of  the  corporation 
to  such  papers  and  documents  as 
shall  be  required  to  be  counter- 
signed or  sealed;  provided  that 
the  board  of  directors  may  au- 
thorize any  officer  or  agent  of  the 


Marketing  by  Federations 


23 


association  to  perform  this  duty, 
unless  prohibited  by  law. 

The  principal  duties  of  the 
treasurer  shall  be  to  safely  Keep 
and  account  for  all  moneys  and 
other  property  of  the  association 
which  shall  come  into  his  hands, 
and  to  keep  an  accurate  account 
of  all  moneys  received  and  dis- 
bursed by  him  and  to  retain 
proper  vouchers  for  all  moneys 
disbursed,  and  to  render  such  ac- 
counts, statements,  and  invento- 
ries as  may  be  required  by  the 
board  of  directors. 

The  officers  of  the  association 
shall  perform  such  additional  du- 
ties as  may  from  time  to  time  be 
imposed  by  the  board  of  directors 
or  as  may  from  time  to  time  be 
prescribed  by  the  by-laws. 

Article  IV 

The  term  of  office  of  all  officers 
of  this  association  shall  be  one 
year  (unless  the  office  be  declared 
vacant  before  the  expiration  of  the 
year)  or  until  a successor  has 
been  elected  or  appointed. 

The  board  of  directors  snai; 
have  authority  to  remove  any  of- 
ficer for  cause,  or  any  employe  at 
any  time,  and  shall  fill  any  va- 
cancy caused  by  any  such  removal. 

Article  V 

The  directors  shall  apportion 
the  earnings  by  first  paying  divi- 
dends on  the  paid-up  capital  stocK 
at  a rate  not  to  exceed  six  per 
cent  annually  and  then  setting 
aside  ten  per  cent  of  the  net  prof- 
its for  a reserve  fund  until  an 
amount  has  accumulated  in  the 
reserve  fund  equal  to  one  liunared 
per  cent  of  the  paid-up  capital 
stock.  The  remainder  of  the  net 
profits  shall  be  distributed  as  re- 
quired by  law. 

Article  VI 

The  board  of  directors  shall 
have  authority  to  issue  shares  of 
stock  or  the  promissory  notes  of 
this  association,  in  payment  of 


patronage  dividends  to  stockhold- 
ers, and  to  provide  for  a method 
of  rotating  capital  based  upon  the 
tonnage  of  cheese  marketed  by 
the  stockholders  through  this  as- 
sociation. 

Article  VII 

Every  stockholder  of  this  asso- 
ciation shall  enter  into  a contract 
to  sell  to  this  association  all  of 
the  cheese  produced  by  or  for 
such  stockholder,  or  such  part 
thereof  as  this  association  may  re- 
quire, which  contract  shall  be  of 
two  years’  duration,  continuing 
thereafter  from  year  to  year  sub- 
ject to  the  right  of  the  stockholder 
to  terminate  liability  under  such 
contract  at  the  end  of  any  year 
after  giving  notice  to  the  board 
of  directors  of  this  association  at 
least  thirty  days  before  the  expi- 
ration of  such  year  and  affording 
to  the  board  of  directors  of  this 
association  a hearing  before  the 
stockholder  in  this  matter.  The 
requirements  of  the  contract  con- 
tained herein  shall  not  affect  the 
right  of  a stockholder  to  dispose 
of  cheese  to  its  members  for  their 
individual  use. 

Any  stockholder  violating  the 
agreement  to  sell  its  cheese,  as 
provided  herein,  shall  pay  to  this 
association — as  liquidated  dam- 
ages— a sum  equal  to  one  cent  per 
pound  for  each  pound  of  cheese 
produced  but  not  delivered  by  it 
according  to  tlie  provisions  con- 
tained herein;  and  said  sum  may 
be  deducted  from  any  money  due 
from  this  association  to  the  stock- 
holder. 

Article  VIII 

Each  cooperative  association  or 
corporation,  which  owns  stock  in 
this  association  shall  furnish  this 
association  any  in,formation  which 
the  board  of  directors  of  this  as- 
sociation may  direct  concerning 
the  amount  of  cheese  produced  by 
or  for  such  cooperative  associa- 
tion or  corporation  and  any  In- 
formation regarding  any  otner 
; matter  pertaining  to  the  business 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  322 


of  such  corporation  or  cooperative 
association. 

Each  cooperative  association  or 
corporation  which  owns  stock  in 
this  association,  shall  conform  to 
all  lawful  rules  and  regulations 
adopted  by  this  association  for 
the  manufacture  and  preparation 
for  shipment  of  cheese  and  by- 
products. 

Article  IX 

Stock  in  this  association  shall 
be  transferred  by  the  owner  or  its 
agent  only  on  the  books  of  this 
association. 

Article  X 

No  stockholder  shall  sell  or 
otherwise  alienate  his  stock  in  this 
association  except  after  deposit- 
ing it  with  the  secretary  thereof 
who  shall  have  the  authority,  if 
exercised  within  thirty  days,  to 
sell  or  otherwise  dispose  of  the 
stock  as  the  board  of  directors 
may  approve,  paying  to  the  owner 
of  the  stock  the  par  value  thereof, 
after  deducting  any  amount  due 
from  the  stockholder  to  this  asso- 
ciation. In  the  event  that  the  sec- 
retary does  not  exercise  the  option 
to  sell  the  shareholder’s  stock 
within  thirty  days  after  the  share- 


holder has  deposited  said  stock 
with  the  secretary,  the  secretary 
shall  return  the  stock  to  the 
shareholder  who  may  then  sell  or 
otherwise  ajienate  it  in  any  man- 
ner not  prohibited  by  law. 

Article  XI 

The  board  of  directors  shall 
have  authority,  upon  giving  ten 
days’  notice  in  writing,  to  call  in 
the  stock  of  any  stockholder  upon 
payment  of  its  par  value,  after  de- 
duction of  any  amount  due  from 
the  stockholder  to  this  associa- 
tion; provided,  that  not  more 
than  ten  per  cent  of  the  paid-up 
capital  stock  shall  be  thus  called 
in  during  the  period  intervening 
between  any  two  annual  stock- 
holders’ meetings,  unless  author- 
ized by  a vote  of  the  stockholders 
in  the  same  manner  as  is  pre- 
scribed for  amendment  of  these 
by-laws. 

Article  XII 

These  by-laws  may  be  amended 
by  a vote  of  the  majority  of  the 
stock  outstanding  at  any  regular 
or  special  meeting;  provided  that 
notice  proposing  to  amend  the  by- 
laws at  a special  meeting  shall  be 
given  in  the  call  therefor. 


V,  . •' 

•AiWUAL  REPORT^OF  THE  DIRECTOR 
- n /'  1919—1920  ^ 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
MADISON 


n 323 


December,  1920 


New 

Farin  Facts 


"■*4^  'f  ^ t 


CONTENTS 


Pag-e 

Forward,  Wisconsin  3 

Corn  Stover  SiFage  for  Milk  Production  5 

Hydrolized  Sawdust  as  a Stock  Food  5 

Comparison  of  Feeding  Standards  for  Dairy  Cows 7 

Feeds  for  Pigs  8-11 

Barley  Versus  Corn  for  Fattening  Steers  12 

Shelter  and  Feed  for  Fattening  Lambs  13 

Lime  Required  for  Animal  Nutrition  15 

Alfalfa  and  Red  Clover  Hay  Compared  18 

^ Do  Acid  Soils  Change  Food  Value  of  Hay?  18 

Milk  Vitamine  Influenced  by  Green  Pasture 20 

Leg  Weakness  in  Chickens  Due  to  Lack  of  Roughage 23 

Higher  Egg  Production  in  the  Flock  25-26 

Milk-Feeding  Baby  Chicks  27 

Studies  on  Sex  Control  28 

Study  of  Twins  in  Live  Stock 29 

Breeding  for  Soybean  Oil  29 

New  Method  in  Detection  of  Johne’s  Disease  31 

Bull  Nose  of  Pigs  32 

Sterility  of  Cows  Often  Preventable  i 33 

Vaccination  Against  Contagious  Abortion  33 

“Little  Plate’’  Method  of  Counting  Bacteria 34 

Are  Legume  Bacteria  Killed  by  Freezing? 36 

Concrete  Tile  and  Drainage  for  Peat  Marshes 39 

Testing  War-Salvaged  Explosives  for  Land  Clearing  40 

Bee  Culture  Acquiring  New  Importance  42-43 

Pea  Moth  and  Other  Insect  Pests  in  1920  44-46 

■^ost  of  Producing  Milk  47 

Are  Peas  Canned  at  a Profit?  . . . 49 

How  Federating  Helps  Cooperation  49 

Retailing  Pood  Supplies  51 

Green  Manure  for  Soil  Improvement  53 

Acidity  Influences  Inoculation  and  Growth 55 

Marsh  Soils  Adapted  to  Dairying  56 

Do  Cherries  Need  Cross-Pollination?  56 

New  Northern  Grown  Strain  of  Triumph  Potatoes  58 

A New  Wilt  Disease  of  Tobacco  69 

Can  We  Prophesy  Plant  Disease  Outbreaks?  62 

Different  Cabbage  Diseases  63-64 

Cherry  Deaf  Spot  and  Apple  Scab  65-66 

Home-Grown  Bean  Seed  Best 67 

Bacterial  Black  Leg  of  Fotato  68 

One  Fungus  Causes  Three  Diseases  69-72 

A New  Noxious  Alien  Weed  73 

Does  Alfalfa  Improve  With  Age?  77 

Better  Crops  for  the  State  81-83 

Sunflowers  Used  for  Silage  85 

Hastening  Maturity  With  Cold  Resistant  Corn  86 

New  Pea  Varieties  Developed  86-88 

Markets  and  Machinery  Give  Wisconsin  Lead  in  Hemp  Production  88 

Sorghum  Crop  Increases  91 

Technical  Articles  and  Publications  94 


New  Farm  Facts 

H.  L.  Russell  and  F.  B.  Morrison 


FORWARD,  WISCONSIN 

A state  advances  with  the  development  of  its  natural  re- 
sources. To  use  only  part  of  the  resources  limits  the  prosperity, 
opportunity,  and  progress  of  the  state. 

Timber,  minerals,  waterpower,  coal,  oil,  gas — ^have  always 
been  considered  as  valuable  capital,  yet  there  is  no  greater  re- 
source than  the  soil.  Wisconsin  counts  her  wealth  in  herds, 
flocks,  and  grain  fields. 

Particularly  suited  to  the  oldest  occupation  of  man,  Wiscon- 
sin has  recognized  the  value  of  the  soil  and  has  applied  her 
genius  and  her  science  to  the  promotion  of  better  agriculture. 
The  clearing  of  cut-over  lands,  the  drainage  of  marsh  soils,  the 
development  of  high  yielding  grains,  the  improvement  of  live 
stock,  the  establishment  of  canning  factories,  hemp  and  sorghum 
mills,  creameries,  cheese  factories  and  condenseries,  have  all 
made  up  a part  of  Wisconsin’s  program  for  advancement. 

Wisconsin  farm  products  find  a ready  market  close  at  hand. 
This  fact  means  much  to  the  men  who  work  the  farms  of  the 
state.  Nearness  to  good  markets  has  been  responsible  for  the 
wonderful  development  of  many  of  the  products  for  which  the 
state  is  noted. 

Wisconsin  is  looking  ahead.  Through  the  application  of 
science  to  the  everyday  efforts  of  country  life,  new  opportunities 
for  progress  are  constantly  open  to  the  Wisconsin  farmer.  Going 
forward,  Wisconsin  will  prosper. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 







ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  CONTRIBUTES  GENEROUSLY 
TO  MAN 

Useful  farm  animals  which  produce  milk,  meat,  wool  and 
labor,  are  very  important  links  in  the  chain  connecting  agri- 
culture and  mankind. 

The  history,  of  live  stock  development  shows  that  nations 
which  have  supported  the  animal  industry  and  which  have 
had  the  benefits  of  its  products,  have  attained  the  highest  de- 
gree of  civilization.  These  nations  have  also  reached  a high 
state  of  development  economically  and  financially  and  further- 
more have  been  the  leading  and  dominating  forces  in  direct- 
ing and  controlling  the  affairs  of  the  world. 

Without  meat,  milk,  and  wool,  the  human  race  would  be 
seriously  handicapped  in  securing  the  necessary  food  supply 
for  its  maintenance. 

Livestock,  furthermore,  aids  greatly,  and  is  highly  import- 
ant in  making  agriculture  permanent.  The  conversion  of  farm 
crops  into  food  products  by  the  various  classes  and  types  of 
farm  animals  enables  a high  percentage  of  plant  ingredients 
to  be  returned  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  farm  manure.  There- 
fore, better  live  stock  and  better  farming  bear  an  important 
relationship  to  one  another. 

Animal  husbandry  has  to  do  with  the  selection,  feeding, 
care,  and  improvement  of  the  farm  animals.  In  practice  it  be- 
comes a fascinating  art  where  one  learns  to  understand  the 
fundamental  laws,  practices,  and  methods  that  combine  to 
produce  successful  results.  It  appeals  to  men  ambitious  to 
engage  in  productive  enterprises  and  provides  fair  profits  under 
successful  conditions  of  management.  It  also  furnishes  recrea- 
tion and  keen  enjoyment  to  men  who  become  live  stock  fan- 
ciers and  who  engage  in  the  production  of  live  stock  as  an 
outside  interest  from  other  lines  of  occupation.  Animals  are 
plastic  and  susceptible  of  being  bred  into  forms  that  suit  the 
needs  and  fancies  of  mankind.  As  a result,  types  and  breeds 
of  farm  animals  have  been  produced  that  serve  a variety  of 
purposes  in  a highly  satisfactory  manner. 




mitiiim 


New  Farm  Facts 


5 


Corn  Stover  Silage  for  Milk  Production 

Corn  stover  silage  has  attracted  much  attention  in  recent  years,  since 
it  has  been  found  that  when  plenty  of  water  is  added  at  the,  time  of 
ensiling,  dry  corn  stover  makes  quite  palatable  silage.  Recently,  widely 
diverse  statements  have  been  made  concerning  the  feeding  value  of 
such  silage.  In  certain  advertisements  of  husking  and  silo  filling  ma- 
chinery the  surprising  and  obviously  unwarranted  claim  has  been  made 
that  corn  stover  silage  is  equal  in  feeding  value,  ton  for  ton,  to  normal 
corn  silage,  from  which  the  ears  have  not  been  removed. 

To  find  the  actual  value  for  milk  production  of  such  silage  compared 
with  normal  corn  silage,  F.  B.  Morrison,  G-.  C.  Humphrey,  and  R.  S. 
Hulce  (Animal  Husbandry)  carried  on  a feeding  trial  the  past  winter 
by  the  double  reversal  method  with  two  lots  each  of  four  cows,  fed  for 
two  periods  each  of  four  weeks.  The  cows  were  fed  either  corn  silage 
or  corn  stover  silage,  along  with  alfalfa  hay  and  a well-balanced  con- 
centrate mixture  consisting  of  ground  corn,  wheat  bran,  linseed  meal, 
and  cottonseed  meal.  While  on  each  ration  the  cows  were  fed  all  the 
silage,  either  corn  silage  or  corn  stover  silage,  they  would  clean  up; 
the  amount  of  the  other  feeds  being  kept  the  same  for  the  two  lots. 
The  cows  took  to  the  corn  stover  silage  quite  readily  hut  consumed  five 
pounds  less  a head  daily,  showing  that  it  was  somewhat  less  palatable 
than  normal  corn  silage.  The  corn  stover  silage  contained  73  per  cent 
of  water,  which  is  about  the  same  amount  as  average  normal  corn 
silage. 

When  fed  corn  stover  silage  the  cows  gave  an  average  yield  of  24.5 
pounds  milk  and  0.98  pounds  butter  fat  dally.  On  normal  corn  silage 
they  yielded  27.4  pounds  milk  and  1.05  pounds  butter  fat,  or  11.8  per 
cent  more  milk  and  7.1  per  cent  more  fat  than  on  corn  stover  silage. 
Taking  into  consideration  the  reduced  yield  on  corn  stover  silage,  it 
was  worth  61  per  cent  as  much  per  ton  as  the  normal  corn  silage  in 
this  trial.  Another  test  on  the  same  question  will  be  carried  on  this 
year  to  gain  further  information  on  this  important  problem. 

Hydroltzed  Sawdust  as  a Stock  Food 

For  many  years  there  has  been  frequent  discussion  as  to  whether 
sawdust  could  not  be  utilized  in  some  manner  as  a stock  food.  Since 
untreated  sawdust  is  valueless  for  this  purpose,  various  methods  of 
hydrolizing  sawdust — or  treating  it  chemically  to  increase  its  digesti- 
bility and  feeding  value — have  been  suggested.  No  definite,  scientific 
feeding  trials,  however,  appear  to  have  been  carried  on  with  such 
materials. 

In  the  work  of  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  located  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin  on 
the  utilization  of  timber  wastes,  an  improved  process  of  hydrolizing 
sawdust  with  dilute  acid  under  pressure  has  been  developed.  In  this 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


process  about  25  per  cent  of  the  dry  weight  of  the  wood  is  converted 
into  sugar  and  the  rest  of  the  wood  fiber  or  cellulose  is  changed  con- 
siderably in  physical  character  and  solubility.  This  process  is  now 
being  used  on  a commercial  scale  in  the  manufacture  of  industrial 
alcohol. 

To  determine  whether  this  hydrolized  sawdust  could  be  used  as  stock 
food,  an  experiment  was  carried  on  with  dairy  cows  by  Messrs.  Mor- 
rison, Humphrey,  and  Hulce,  using  hydrolized  sawdust  prepared  by 


PIG.  1.— BAKING  OUT  HYDBOLIZED  SAWUUST 

Cooking'  sawdust  under  pressure  for  fifteen  minutes  in  this  digester  converts  a part  of 
the  wood  into  sugar  and  makes  the  rest  more  digestible. 


E.  C.  Sherrard  of  the  Forest  Products  Laboratory.  Because  only  a 
limited  amount  of  hydrolized  sawdust  was  available,  but  three  cows 
could  be  used  in  the  trial.  These  were  fed  for  three  periods  of  four 
weeks  each.  In  the  first  and  third  periods  the  cows  were  given  an  ex- 
cellent ration  consisting  of  alfalfa  hay,  corn  silage  and  a concentrate 
mixture  consisting  of  55  parts  of  ground  barley,  30  parts  wheat  bran, 
and  15  parts  of  linseed  meal.  In  the  second  feeding  period  the  hydro- 
lized or  treated  sawdust  was  substituted  for  a part  of  the  barley  in  the 
mixture.  Two  pounds  of  sawdust  were  used  in  place  of  one  of  barley. 
The  grain,  mixture  then  consisted  of  30  parts  of  sawdust,  40  parts  of 
ground  barley,  30  parts  of  wheat  bran  and  15  parts  of  linseed  meal. 
The  cows  kept  up  their  production  through  this  period  and  maintained 


New  Farm  Facts 


7 


their  weight  even  better  than  on  the  ration  fed  during  the  first  and 
third  periods. 

While  it  is  unsafe  to  draw  definite  conclusions  from  such  a short 
test,  it  would  seem  that  cattle  may  be  fed  a limited  amount  of  hydro- 
lized  sawdust.  As  a feed  it  contains  only  a negligible  amount  of 
protein  and  for  that  reason  cannot  entirely  take  the  place  of  barley. 
In  both  of  the  rations  used  in  the  trials  the  protein  was  furnished  by 
the  other  feeds.  Before  drawing  any  definite  conclusions  about  the 
feeding  value  of  hydrolized  sawdust  and  its  commercial  possibilities 
as  a stock  food,  more  extended  trials  will  be  carried  on. 


COMPARISOX  OF  FeKDIXG  STANDARDS  FOR  DaIRY  CoWS 


The  various  feeding  standards  for  dairy  cows  differ  considerably  in 
the  amounts  of  total  nutrients  advised,  expressed  either  in  total  di- 
gestible nutrients  or  in  net  energy,  and  also  in  the  amount  of  protein 
recommended.  It  is  a matter  of  great  importance,  both  practically 
and  theoretically,  to  ascertain  which  standards  most  accurately  present 
the  needs  of  cows  of  various  productive  capacities.  However,  but  little 
experimental  work  has  been  carried  on  to  determine  the  relative 
amount  of  product  yielded  and  the  relative  economy  of  production  when 
cows  are  fed  rations  balanced  according  to  different  standards.  A 
trial  was  therefore  carried  on  by  Messrs.  Morrison  and  Humphrey 
and  the  late  F.  L.  Putney,  to  compare  the  results  from  feeding  rations 
balanced  according  to  the  recent  Savage  and  Armsby  standards  which 
are  widely  used. 

To  balance  rations  according  to  the  Savage  standards  for  cows  of 
good  production,  requires  considerably  more  concentrates  than  to  bal- 
ance rations  for  the  same  cows  according  to  the  Armsby  standards. 
This  trial  was  planned  to  study  the  effect  of  this  difference  in  total 
digestible  nutrients  or  net  energy  between  the  two  standards.  No 
attempt  was  made  to  compare  the  protein  requirements  of  the  two 
standards,  but  the  amounts  of  digestible  crude  protein  were  kept  the 
same  in  both'  rations. 

Two  lots  each  of  eight  cows  were  fed  by  the  double  reversal  method  for 
three  periods  of  five  weeks  each,  with  transition  periods  of  a week  before 
each  experimental  period.  Averaging  the  results  for  the  two  lots,  on 
the  Armsby  ration  the  cows  consumed  on  the  average  7.21  pounds 
concentrates,  10.8  pounds  alfalfa  hay,  and  31.6  pounds  corn  silage  per 
head  daily.  On  the  Savage  ration  the  cows  consumed  10.33  pounds 
concentrates,  10.8  pounds  alfalfa  hay,  and  32.3  pounds  corn  silage  a 
head  daily.  Thus,  over  3 pounds  more  concentrates  a head  daily  were 
required  in  the  ration  balanced  according  to  the  Savage  standards. 
On  the  Savage  ration  the  average  daily  yield  of  milk  was  27.94  pounds, 
while  on  the  Armsby  ration  it  was  only  25.72  pounds,  a difference  of 
2.22  pounds.  Likewise,  on  the  Savage  ration,  the  daily  yield  of  butter 
fat  was  1.04  pounds  and  on  the  Armsby  ration  only  .97  pound,  a differ- 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


ence  of  .07  pound.  Moreover,  the  cows  gained  slightly  more  in  live 
weight  on  the  Savage  ration.  The  results  were  clear  cut  in  each  lot, 
showing  plainly  that  with  most  of  the  animals  the  Armsby  ration  did 
not  furnish  sufficient  nutrients  for  maximum  production. 

While  the  amount  of  product  yielded  is  of  primary  importance  to  the 
breeder  who  is  feeding  cows  on  official  tests  for  records  which  will 
enhance  their  value,  the  economy  of  production  is  of  greater  importance 
to  the  average  dairyman.  With  feeds  at  1917-1918  prices,  it  was  found 
that  the  feed  cost  of  100  pounds  milk  was  $1.78  on  the  Savage  ration 


MG.  2.-^DAIRY  BARN  EQUIPFEB  POR  FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS 


In  feeding  experiments,  a special  framework  is  necessary  over  the  manger  to  prevent 
cows  from  wasting  any  feed  or  stealing  from  their  neighbors.  The  sacks  containing 
hay  and  grain  weighed  out  for  each  cow  may  be  seen  in  front  of  the  mangers. 


and  only  $1.60  on  the  Armsby  ration.  Correspondingly,  the  feed  cost  of 
1 pound  butter  fat  was  $.48  on  the  Savage  ration  and  only  $.42  on  the 
Armsby  ration.  These  results  indicate  that  rations  balanced  according 
to  the  Savage  standards  for  dairy  cows  will  cause  greater  production 
than  rations  balanced  according  to  the  Armsby  standards.  However, 
when  feeds  are  high  in  price,  it  is  preferable  to  feed  somewhat  less 
concentrates  than  advised  in  the  Savage  standards  where  economy 
of  production  is  the  chief  object  sought. 

Protein-Rich  Supplements  for  Pigs 

Continuing  their  investigations  of  the  value  of  various  protein-rich 
supplements  for  growing,  fattening  pigs  Mr.  Morrison,  G-.  Bohstedt, 


New  Farm  Facts 


9 


anc'  J.  M.  Fargo  (Animal  Husbandry)  have  carried  on  four  trials  the 
past  year  with  a total  of  250  pigs.  Last  year  it  was  announced  that 
well-grown  pigs  weighing  125  to  150  pounds  made  exceptionally  good 
gains  on  merely  barley  and  whey,  a ration  furnishing  much  less  protein 
than  has  been  recommended  by  any  feeding  standard. 

A trial  was  carried  on  the  past  winter  to  find  whether  barley  and 
whey  makes  a well-balanced  ration  for  younger  pigs  which,  owing  to 
their  rapid  growth,  require  a greater  proportion  of  protein.  Just  as 
had  been  predicted,  with  younger  pigs  more  rapid  and  economical 
gains  were  secured  where  a small  amount  of  tankage  or  linseed  meal 
was  added  to  the  ration  of  barley  and  whey.  Similar  results  were  se- 
cured with  corn  and  whey.  On  corn  and  whey  alone  pigs  gained  1.18 
pounds  a head  daily,  considerably  more  than  was  expected  on  this  ration 
which  was  quite  low  in  protein.  Adding  .38  pound  of  tankage  a head 
daily  to  the  ration  increased  the  daily  gain  to  1.49  pounds.  These 
trials,  together  with  those  carried  on  previously,  show  that  while  whey 
and  barley  or  probably  even  whey  and  corn,  make  an  excellent  ration 
for  finishing  well-grown  shotes,  for  younger  pigs  it  pays  to  balance 
the  ration  better  by  adding  a little  protein-rich  feed  for  pigs  not  on 
pasture. 

Wheat  middlings  and  linseed  meal  are  perhaps  the  protein-rich  pur- 
chased feeds  most  commonly  used  in  Wisconsin  for  swine.  Several 
trials  have,  therefore,  been  carried  on  to  find  out  how  effectively  they 
actually  were  compared  to  skimmilk  or  tankage  in  balancing  corn 
and  barley.  Good  results  have  not  been  secured  where  either  middlings 
or  linseed  meal  was  fed  to  pigs  in  dry  lot  as  the  only  supplement  to 
corn  or  barley.  For  example,  in  two  trials  the  pigs  on  middlings  and 
barley  averaged  only  1.21  pounds  gain  per  head  daily,  while  the  same 
kind  of  pigs  gained  1.89  pounds  with  skimmilk  as  the  supplement 
and  1.64  pounds  with  tankage.  Compared  with  tankage  at  $115  a ton 
middlings  was  actually  worth  only  $17.98  per  ton  when  fed  in  this  way. 
Similar  results  were  secured  with  linseed  meal. 

However,  both  these  feeds  are  satisfactory  when  fed  right.  During 
the  past  two  summers  pigs  fed  linseed  meal  or  middlings  with  corn 
on  good  pasture  gained  nearly  as  rapidly  as  those  fed  corn  and  tank- 
age. On  pasture,  middlings  was  worth  $74.00  per  ton,  compared  with 
tankage.  These  trials  show  that  linseed  meal  and  middlings  should  be 
fed  on  pasture,  or  for  dry  lot  feeding  they  should  be  used  along  with 
tankage,  skimmilk,  buttermilk,  or  whey. 

The  value  of  linseed  meal  when  fed  in  proper  combinations  is  further 
shown  by  the  fact  that  in  trials  during  the  past  two  summers,  pigs  on 
pasture  which  were  self-fed  a mixture  of  half  linseed  meal  and  half 
tankage  as  a supplement  to  corn  gained  more  rapidly  than  when  self- 
fed  only  tankage  as  the  supplement.  When  thus  replacing  part  of  the 
tankage,  linseed  meal  was  worth  as  much  per  ton  as  tankage.  Also 
last  winter  pigs  self-fed  this  same  mixture  made  more  rapid  and 
economical  gains  than  when  self-fed  only  shelled  corn  and  tankage. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Further  trials  carried  on  during  the  past  year  have  substantiatec.  the 
previous  work  showing  the  high  value  of  skimmilk  as  a supplement 
to  corn  or  barley.  Where  there  is  sufficient  skimmilk  available  to 
balance  the  ration  properly,  there  is  no  advantage  in  purchasing  tank- 
age, linseed  meal,  or  other  protein-rich  feeds. 


fig.  3.— pigs  fed  yellow  corn  gain  more  rapidly 

The  pig  on  the  left,  a representative  from  the  lot  fed  yellow  corn  and  tankage, 
gained  143  pounds,  Avhile  the  other  one,  from  the  lot  fed  white  corn  and  tankage, 
gained  only  118  pounds. 

Yellow  vs.  White  Corn  for  Pigs 

When  it  was  reported  last  year  by  H.  Steenbock  (Agricultural  Chem- 
istry) that  in  his  trials  with  rats  yellow  corn  had  been  found  to  be 
much  richer  in  fat-soluble  vitamine  than  white  corn,  the  question  im- 
mediately arose  concerning  the  practical  bearing  of  this  fact  on  stock 
feeding.  It  was  not  expected  that  any  difference  would  be  apparent 
with  farm  animals  consuming  a considerable  quantity  of  good  rough- 
age,  such  as  legume  hay,  for  green  leaved  plants  are,  in  general,  rich 
in  this  fat-soluble  vitamine.  While  white  corn  is  accordingly  probably 
equal  to  yellow  corn  for  beef  cattle,  dairy  cows,  and  sheep,  it  was 
thought  there  might  be  a difference  in  their  value  for  pigs  fed  in  a dry 
lot  without  access  to  pasture.  Trials  have,  therefore,  been  carried  on 
iby  Messrs.  Morrison  and  Bohstedt  in  consultation  with  Mr.  Steenbock 
to  determine  the  relative  value  of  yellow  and  white  corn  for  pigs. 

Last  winter  pigs  self-fed  a balanced  mixture  of  yellow  corn  and  tank- 
age gained  1.59  pounds  a head  daily,  requiring  42i3  pounds  of  feed  for 
100'  pounds  gain,  while  pigs  self-fed  a mixture  of  white  corn  and  tank- 
age gained  only  1.13  pounds  and  required  16  per  cent  more  feed  for 
100  pounds  gain.  With  yellow  and  white  corn  at  the  same  price  per 


New  Farm  Facts 


11 


bushel,  the  feed  cost  of  100  pounds  gain  was  $12.00  on  yellow  corn  and 
$13.97  on  white  corn  with  feeds  at  last  winter’s  prices. 

Yellow  and  white  corn  were  also  compared  when  fed  with  linseed 
meal  as  the  supplement.  However,  as  was  expected  from  the  experi- 
ment^ mentioned  previously,  satisfactory  gains  were  not  produced  by 
either  lot,  even  though  ground  rock  phosphate  was  added  to  supply  ad- 
ditional lime,  which  is  deficient  in  the  corn-linseed  meal  ration.  These 
low  gains  on  corn  and  linseed  meal  are  apparently  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  protein  of  linseed  meal  does  not  effectively  supplement  the 
protein  of  corn. 

Orange  colored  carrots,  which  are  rich  in  fat-soluble  vitamine,  in- 
creased the  gains  when  added  to  the  ration  of  white  corn,  linseed  meal, 
and  ground  rock  phosphate.  On  the  other  hand,  the  addition  of  sugar 
mangels,  which  are  low  in  this  vitamine,  resulted  in  no  improvement. 
When  5 per  cent  of  finely  chopped  alfalfa  hay  was  added  to  the  mix- 
ture of  white  corn,  linseed  meal,  and  ground  rock  phosphate,  decided 
improvement  resulted.  This  was  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
alfalfa  hay  not  only  furnished  fat-soluble  vitamine  but  also  protein 
and  mineral  matter. 

In  another  trial  carried  on  during  the  past  summer,  pigs  self-fed  a 
mixture  of  yellow  corn  and  tankage  gained  1.28  pounds  a head  daily, 
while  those  fed  white  corn  and  tankage  gained  1.06  pounds.  Just  as 
in  the  previous  trials,  unsatisfactory  gains  were  produced  by  pigs  in 
dry  lots  on  either  yellow  or  white  corn  with  linseed  meal  and  ground 
rock  phosphate.  When  fed  to  pigs  on  rape  pasture  white  corn  and  lin- 
seed meal  produced  gains  which  were  satisfactory  and  as  rapid  as  with 
yellow  corn  and  linseed  meal,  as  long  as  plenty  of  forage  was  available. 
After*  the  close  of  the  pasture  season,  the  pigs  on  yellow  corn  forged 
ahead.  The  addition  of  5 per  cent  of  chopped  alfalfa  or  clover  hay 
considerably  improved  the  ration  of  yellow  corn,  linseed  meal,  and 
ground  rock  phosphate  when  fed  in  a dry  lot.  Trials  are  being  con- 
tinued to  gain  further  data  on  the  relative  value  of  yellow  and  white 
corn  and  the  effect  of  various  supplements. 

Pasture  Crops  for  Pigs 

The  comparisons  of  various  pasture  crops  for  pigs  which  have  been 
carried  on  by  Messrs.  Morrison  and  Bohstedt  during  the  past  five  years 
at  the  Hill  Farm  at  Madison  have  shown  that  in  locations  where  alfalfa 
can  be  grown  successfully,  it  is  slightly  superior  to  the  other  pasture 
crops  which  have  been  tested.  In  order  to  prevent  killing  out  the 
alfalfa,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  pasture  it  too  closely,  or  to  let  the 
pigs  stay  on  it  so  late  in  the  fall  that  no  growth  will  be  left  for  winter 
protection. 

A mixture  of  oats,  peas,  and  rape  has  proven  the  best  annual  crop, 
with  rape  alone  a close  second.  Bed  clover  is  an  excellent  long  season 
crop  and  is  one  of  thosd  most  easily  grown  on  Wisconsin  farms.  In 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


two  years’  trial,  biennial  sweet  clover  has  been  inferior  to  alfalfa  or  red 
clover.  Oats  and  peas  furnish  pasture  for  but  a short  season.  There- 
fore, rape  should  be  added  if  another  crop  is  not  to  be  grown  after  the 
oats  and  peas  are  removed.  Soybeans  are  a good  fall  pasture  crop. 
Native  pasture,  consisting  of  blue  grass  with  some  white  clover,  fur- 
nishes early  spring  pasture,  but  is  much  inferior  to  the  crops  previ- 
ously mentioned  for  spring  pigs  after  weaning. 


PIG.  4.— PASTURE  CROPS  NEEDED  POR  ECONOMICAL  PORK  PRODUCTION 

Pigs  on  good  pasture  crops  have  returned  twice  the  profit  of  those  fed  an  excellent 
ration  without  pasture,  in  trials  during  the  past  five  years. 


Barley  versus  Corn  for  Fattening  Steers 

The  report  for  the  previous  year  reviewed  feeding  trials  carried  on 
tq  determine  the  value  of  barley  versus  corn  for  dairy  cows,  work 
horses,  and  growing,  fattening  pigs.  The  past  winter  a trial  was  car- 
ried on  by  J.  G.  Fuller  (Animal  Husbandry)  and  Messrs.  Morrison  and 
Fargo  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  these  grains  for  fattening 
steers.  Two  lots  each  of  ten  steers  were  fed  for  126  days.  The  first  lot 
received  crushed  barley,  corn  silage,  and  mixed  hay,  with  sufficient 
cottonseed  meal  to  balance  the  ration.  The  other  lot  was  fed  shelled 
corn  in  place  of  the  barley  and  one-half  pound  more  cottonseed  meal  a 
head  daily,  inasmuch  as  corn  is  lower  in  protein  than  is  barley. 

The  steers  fed  barley  gained  2.45  pounds  a head  daily,  while  those 
fed  shelled  corn  gained  only  2.03  pounds.  The  barley-fed  steers  sold 
on  the  Milwaukee  market  at  $13.50  per  hundredweight,  while  the  sell* 


New  Farm  Facts 


13 


ing  price  of  those  fed  corn  was  15  cents  less.  Due  to  the  low  price  for 
finished  cattle  last  spring,  there  was  a heavy  loss  per  steer  in  each  lot. 

With  shelled  corn  at  $1.40  a bushel  and  crushed  barley  at  $1.44  a 
bushel,  the  average  loss  per  head,  without  crediting  the  returns  from 
the  pigs  following  the  steers,  was  $40.46  for  the  lot  fed  shelled  corn 
and  $35.84  for  the  lot  fed  crushed  barley.  The  pork  return  per 
steer  was  much  larger  with  the  lot  fed  shelled  corn,  amounting  to 
$10.67  per  steer  for  this  lot  and  only  $2.52  per  steer  for  those  fed 
crushed  barley.  This  made  the  net  loss,  after  crediting  returns  from 
pork,  $29.79  a head  for  the  corn-fed  steers  and  $33.32  for  the  barley- 
fed  steers. 

The  steers  fed  barley  shrank  5.'5  per  cent  in  shipment  to  Milwaukee, 
while  the  other  lot  shrank  4.7  per  cent.  The  yield  of  dressed  carcass 
was  .51  per  cent  higher  for  the  steers  fed  barley.  Considering  all  the 
factors,  crushed  barley  in  this  trial  was  worth  fully  as  much  per  ton 
as  shelled  corn  for  beef  production. 

Shelter  for  Fattening  Lambs 

In  trials  which  have  been  carried  on  in  the  central  part  of  the  corn 
belt,  fattening  lambs  fed  in  an  open  shed  have  made  larger  gains  and 
returned  a greater  profit  than  others  fed  in  a well-ventilated  bam.  To 
find  whether  warmer  shelter  would  be  preferable  in  our  colder  winter 
climate,  Mr.  Morrison  and  P.  Kleinheinz  (Animal  Husbandry)  have 
carried  on  feeding  trials  during  three  winters.  In  each  trial  one  lot  of 
40  lambs  was  fed  in  a well-ventilated  sheep  barn  and  another  lot  in  an 
open  shed,  partly  boarded  up  to  provide  better  protection  from  the 
wind  and  snow.  Each  lot  was  turned  out  for  exercise  a short  time 
daily,  except  in  stormy  weather. 

In  two  out  of  the  three  trials  the  lambs  in  the  barn  made  slightly 
larger  gains  and  each  year  the  cost  of  feed  for  100  pounds  gain  was 
less  and  the  profit  slightly  larger  than  for  those  in  the  open  shed.  On 
the  average,  the  lambs  in  the  barn  gained  0.39-5  pound  a head  daily  and 
required  324  pounds  concentrates,  268  pounds  legume  hay,  and  62i3 
pounds  corn  silage  for  100  pounds  gain  The  lambs  fed  in  the  shed 
gained  an  average  of'  0.386  pound  a head  daily  and  required  2.5  per 
cent  more  concentrates,  10.8  per  cent  more  hay,  and  1.9'  per  cent  more 
silage  for  100  pounds  gain.  There  was  no  difference  in  the  finish  or 
selling  price  of  the  two  lots. 

These  results  show  that  under  Wisconsin  conditions  there  is  a 
slight  advantage  in  providing  warmer  shelter  than  an  open  shed  for 
fattening  lambs  in  winter  unless  the  building  is  so,  located  that  it  Is 
unusually  well  protected  from  the  prevailing  winds. 

Protein-Rtcit  Supplements  for  Fattening  Lambs 

Comparisons  of  the  value  of  protein-rich  supplements  for  fattening 
lambs  have  been  continued  by  Messrs.  Morrison  and  Kleinheinz.  Lin- 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


I I Ilium IIIIIIIIII mi 

CHEMIST  IS  CLOSE  ALLY  OF  FARMER 

^Why  is  this  or  that  field  lagging  behind  in  crop  production? 
What  causes  a pig  to  be  born  hairless?  With  what  doos  ani- 
mal life  have  to  be  supplied  to  insure  healthy  growth? 

The  agricultural  chemist  has  an  answer  for  these  and  hun- 
dreds of  other  questions  that  farmers  are  asking  every  day. 

Chemistry  touches  agriculture  in  many  of  its  numerous 
phases  and  has  been,  and  will  continue  to  be,  one  of  the 
most  fundamental  sciences  upon  which  the  farmer  must  rely 
to  be  most  successful. 

Chemistry  deals  with  the  composition  of  soils,  the  atmos- 
phere and  the  water;  the  values  and  natures  of  stable  and 
commercial  fertilizers;  with  the  composition  of  plants  and 
their  relation  to  the  development  of  animal  life.  It  deals 
with  insecticides  and  fungicides  and  their  chemical  nature; 
and  it  was  through  the  study  of  poisons  and  insect  pests  that 
the  modern  treatments  employed  by  horticulturists  became 
available. 

Great  faith  has  long  beon  placed  on  the  balanced  ration, 
but  in  some  cases  these  rations  were  not  successful.  The 
chemists  attacked  the  problem  and  before  long  announced 
that  these  failures  were  due  to  the  lack  of  substances  which 
have  since  been  called  vLtamines.  Balanced  rations  composed 
entirely  of  the  parts  of  the  wheat  or  oat  plant  did  not  pro- 
duce good  results  but  it  was  shown  that  alfalfa  or  clover  hay, 
containing  a rich  store  of  vitamines  and  lime,  would  remedy 
the  condition. 

Discoveries  of  this  sort  are  making  the  science  of  agricul- 
ture more  and  more  exact. 

Farmers  have  sworn  vengeance  on  crickets  or  grasshoppers 
because  they  ate  the  twine  with  which  the  bundles  of  grain 
were  tied.  The  chemists  studied  the  reactions  of  the  grass- 
hopper to  different  chemicals  and  soon  produced  a method  of 
treating  the  twine  that  took  all  the  relish  out  of  that  par- 
ticular part  of  this  insect’s  meal. 

To  the  chemist  is  due  much  credit  for  the  past  wonderful 
progress  of  agriculture,  and  many  of  the  guide  posts  to  future 
development  must  be  furnished  by  him  if  we  are  to  advance 
in  our  knowledge  of  things  agricultural. 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiifiiiiiiiiniiitiiiiMtiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiinMiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiii 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiMtiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiMiiiiritiiiMiiiiNitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiihiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


New  Farm  Facts 


15 


seed  and  cottonseed  meal,  which  are  the  supplements  most  commonly 
fed  to  fattening  lambs  to  balance  rations  low  in  protein,  have  been 
compared  in  two  trials,  each  with  lots  of  40  western  lambs.  These 
supplements  were  added  to  a ration  of  shelled  corn,  legume  hay,  and 
all  the  corn  silage  the  lambs  would  eat,  which  made  a ration  relatively 
low  in  protein.  As  cottonseed  meal  is  slightly  richer  in  protein 
than  linseed  meal,  a little  less  was  needed  to  balance  the  ration. 

Each  year  there  was  practically  no  difference  in  the  gains  of  the  two 
lots,  in  the  amount  of  feed  required  for  100  pounds  gain,  or  in  the 
finish  of  the  lambs.  Due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  necessary  to  use 
slightly  less  cottonseed  meal  than  linseed  meal  to  balance  the  ration, 
the  feed  cost  of  100  pounds  gain  was  13  cents  less  where  this  supple- 
ment was  fed.  These  trials,  therefore,  show  cottonseed  meal  to  be  fully 
equal  to  linseed  meal  for  fattening  lambs. 

Last  winter  gluten  feed  was  compared  with  linseed  meal.  As  gluten 
feed  is  lower  in  protein  than  linseed  meal,  it  was  necessary  to  use  a 
larger  proportion  to  balance  the  ration.  The  lambs  fed  gluten  feed  made 
practically  as  large  gains  as  those  fed  linseed  meal,  but  were  not  as 
well  finished  and  shrank  more  on  shipment.  With  linseed  meal  at  $80 
per  ton  and  gluten  fe.ed  at  $72.50  per  ton,  last  winter’s  prices,  the 
profit  per  lamb  was  $.44  greater  on  linseed  meal. 


Lime  Required  for  Animal  Nutrition 

In  the  reproduction  of  cattle,  hogs,  and  fowls  certain  forages  fail 
because  they  lack  calcium.  According  to  E.  B.  Hart  (Agricultural 
Chemistry)  premature,  weak,  or  dead  calves  have  been  born  with  oat 
grain  and  oat  straw.  However,  when  salts  of  calcium  or  a calcium 
rich  roughage  was  introduced,  reproduction  was  successful. 

The  matter  of  providing  a satisfactory  roughage  of  high  calcium 
content  deserves  more  attention  than  a mere  provision  for  calcium 
from  a mineral  supply.  Calves  born  on  a ration  fortified  with  calcium 
have  been  born  alive,  and  of  higher  weight  than  those  without  the  cal- 
cium addition,  but  they  did  not  seem  to  possess  the  same  vigor  obtained 
when  alfalfa  or  corn  stover  was  used  as  roughage.  An  attempt  to  im- 
prove the  oat  plant  ration  with  a better  protein  mixture,  or  by  adding 
butter  fat  to  introduce  more  fat-soluble  vitamine  did  not  give  better 
results  than  when  the  only  supplement  to  the  oat  plant  was  a calcium 
salt.  The  conclusions  now  drawn  are  that  a successful  ration  for  re- 
production in  dry  breeding  cattle  must  carry  at  least  0.45  per  cent  of 
calcium  oxide  (lime)  as  the  percentage  of  total  air  dried  material  of 
the  ration.  This  figure  may  be  larger  than  necessary  where  green  ma- 
terials are  used. 

Not  only  did  the  lack  of  calcium  .show  itself  as  injurious  to  reproduc- 
tion in  cattle  rations,  but  similar  results  were  obtained  with  swine  and 
chickens.  Previous  work  showed  in  the  case  of  brood  sows  that  these 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


animals  when  restricted  to  a grain  ration,  common  salt,  and  natural 
water  would  finally  reach  a condition  where  there  would  be  increasing 
numbers  of  dead  pigs  at  birth.  Sows  which  have  previously  produced 
normal  litters,  when  changed  to  a ration  low  in  mineral  supplements 
except  common  salt,  have  produced  dead  but  haired  litters;  and  again 
these  sows  have  been  brought  back  to  normal  reproduction  by  use  of  a 
calcium-rich  roughage  in  the  ration.  With  the  introduction  of  from  15 
to  25  per  cent  of  alfalfa  in  the  ration,  and  the  use  of  either  barley,  ground 
oats,  or  yellow  corn  for  the  grain,  normal  living  litters  were  produced. 


FIG.  5*— A NORMAL  CALF  FROM  CORN  AND  TIMOTHY  HAT 
Timothy  or  marsh  hay  grown  on  alkaline  soils  is  an  eflBeient  calcium-rich  roughage. 

The  needs  of  chickens  are  apparently  no  different  from  those  of  mam- 
mals. Taken  as  chicks,  or  at  one-quarter  of  a pound  in  weight,  they 
failed  to  grow  on  any  of  the  grains  or  grain  supplements  with  protein 
concentrates,  unless  these  concentrates  were  of  such  types  as  to  carry 
abundant  mineral  supplies — especially  calcium  salts. 

J.  G.  Halpin  (Poultry  Husbandry)  and  Mr.  Hart  have  made  observa- 
tions upon  chickens  taken  at  one  to  two  pounds  weight.  When  corn 
grain  was  fed  with  gluten  feed  only  and  1 per  cent  of  common  salt  the 
chickens  died  early,  but  when  corn,  common  salt,  calcium  carbonate, 
and  casein  were  fed  they  reached  weights  of  3 to  4 pounds.  They  did 
best,  however,  when  butter  fat  was  added  also.  In  the  latter  case, 
weights  of  4%  to  5 pounds  were  reached  with  normal  egg  production. 
Wheat  and  barley  were  also  used  but  greater  mortality  occurred  with 


New  Farm  Facts 


17 


wheat.  Barley  needs  the  supplement  of  common  salt,  calcium  in  some 
form,  and  butter  fat  for  successful  growth  and  egg  production.  The 
butter  fat  acts  merely  as  a carrier  of  the  fat-soluble  vitamine  and  in 
growth  of  chickens  its  source  will  be  drawn  from  other  materials  than 
butter  fat  itself. 

Does  a Vitamine  Control  Use  of  Lime  by  Animals? 

All  experiments  with  farm  animals  show  the  need  for  abundant  sup- 
plies of  calcium  in  a ration  for  successful  growth  and  reproduction. 
Work  done  by  Forbes  of  Ohio  and  Meigs  of  the  Dairy  Division  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  indicates  that  milking  cows 
fed  rations  apparently  rich  in  calcium  will  give  out  more  calcium  than 
they  receive.  This  station  made  similar  observations  on  a milking  cow 
a number  of  years  ago,  and  later  with  a milking  goat.  Both  animals  were 
found  to  be  in  negative  calcium  balance;  that  is,  they  were  giving  out 
more  calcium  than  they  were  taking  in,  when  fed  grains  and  straw. 
After  a short  period  in  which  they  received  green  materials,  the  condi- 
tion was  reversed.  This  condition  raises  the  question  as  to  whether 
there  is  an  accessory  food  factor  having  something  to  do  with  the  as- 
similation of  calcium  within  the  animal  body.  This  factor,  as  well  as 
the  total  calcium,  is  too  low  in  cereal  straws  and  grains,  but  when  cal- 
cium salts  are  introduced  their  mass  may  become  an  effective  means 
of  assisting  in  calcium  assimilation.  If  this  theory  is  correct,  it  would 
seem  that  green  forage  was  better  suited  for  milking  and  pregnant  ani- 
mals. This  theory  further  involves  the  assumption  that  green  plant 
tissue  is  more  abundantly  supplied  with  a vitamine  which  controls  cal- 
cium assimilation  (i.  e.,  antirachitic)  than  is  dry  material.  Actual 
facts  and  definite  conclusions,  however,  have  not  yet  determined  the  re- 
lation of  this  theory  to  the  calcium  requirement  of  animals. 

Sugar  Formation  in  Beet  Influenced  by  Climate 

During  the  past  summer  W.  E.  Tottingham  and  S.  Lepkovsky  (Agri- 
cultural Chemistry)  investigated  the  changes  of  nitrogen  compounds  in 
the  leaves  of  the  sugar  beet  during  the  day  and  night.  Their  results 
indicate  that  the  greatest  manufacture  of  protein  in  the  leaves  closely 
follows  the  largest  production  of  carbohydrates.  With  the  coming  of 
moderately  cool  nights  (50°  F.)  the  increase  of  soluble  protein  in  the 
leaves  was  particularly  striking.  While  it  is  known  that  high  tempera- 
tures are  unfavorable  to  the  development  of  a high  sugar  content,  if  the 
results  are  confirmed,  it  will  offer  an  explanation  of  the  favorable  in- 
fiuence  of  temperate  climate  on  the  percentage  of  sugar  in  the  beet. 
A moderately  low  temperature  such  as  occurs  in  late  summer  or  early 
fall,  checks  the  use  of  the  carbohydrates  for  protein  building,  and 
leaves  them  free  to  migrate  and  be  stored  as  sugar  in  the  sugar  beet 
root. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Ai^falfa  and  Red  Clover  Hay  Compared 

Alfalfa  has  been  accepted  generally  as  a valuable  feeding  stuff  but 
Mr.  Hart  and  G.  C.  Humphrey  (Animal  Husbandry)  have  now  com- 
pared it  with  red  clover  hay. 

Their  results  show  that  it  is  impossible  to  maintain  nitrogen  in  posi- 
tive balance  in  dairy  cows  of  high  daily  milk  production  fed  a ration  of 
cereal  grain,  red  clover  hay,  and  corn  silage.  Not  only  did  a cow 
with  clover  hay  as  a roughage  show  a decided  falling  off  in  milk  secre- 
tion but  the  nitrogen  balance  of  her  body  was  decidedly  negative. 

In  an  attempt  to  discover  a ration  which  could  be  grown  on  the  farm, 
alfalfa  hay  was  substituted  in  the  feed  for  red  clover  hay.  It  was  here 
shown  that  when  the  nitrogen  content  of  the  hay  is  the  same  as  the 
nitrogen  content  of  the  other  feeds  used,  the  nitrogen  balance  of  the 
cow’s  body  and  the  milk  flow  of  comparatively  high  producing  cows 
can  be  maintained  over  a period  of  at  least  16  weeks. 

This  “home  grown  ration’’  has  a nutritive  ratio  of  1:  7.9.  It  pro- 
vided less  digestible  true  protein  than  the  requirements  of  the  Armsby 
standard,  but  provided  little  less  digestible  protein  than  required  by 
the  modifled  standards  suggested  by  Henry  and  Morrison.  Corn,  oats, 
barley,  or  a mixture  of  the  three  gave  similar  results. 

The  greater  efficiency  of  the  alfalfa  ration  over  the  clover  ration  is 
probably  due  to  the  greater  protein  intake  made  possible  by  the  higher 
nitrogen  content  of  the  alfalfa  ration.  These  results  promise  to  be  of 
exceptional  value  to  farmers  where  alfalfa  can  be  grown. 

Do  Acid  Soils  Change  Food  Value  of  Hay? 

Our  experiments  have  previously  shown  that  some  forages  are  so  low 
in  calcium  as  not  to  be  suitable  for  successful  nutrition.  Mr.  Hart  has 
found  that  hays  grown  on  marsh  lands  vary  materially  in  lime  content 
whether  the  soil  is  acid  or  alkaline.  Blue  grass  grown  on  acid  soil  may 
have  a calcium  content  as  low  as  0.3  per  cent  while  it  may  be  twice 
as  much  if  grown  on  alkaline  soil. 

Marsh  hays  grown  on  the  University  marsh  and  carrying  1 per  cent 
of  calcium  oxide  were  found  to  be  very  efficient  roughages  for  repro- 
ducing cows.  Normal  offspring  of  good  weight  and  vigor  were  ob- 
tained in  the  first  gestation.  Timothy  hay  grown  on  this  marsh  gave 
similarly  good  results.  The  general  conclusions  point  to  the  fact  that 
such  roughages  when  grown  on  alkaline  soils  and  used  in  their  dry  state 
will  be  efficient  for  reproduction.  If  animals  were  called  upon  to  milk 
heavily,  however,  these  roughages  would  not  be  so  efficient  as  dried 
alfalfa  or  dried  clover  hay. 

Reports  from  the  acid  Buena  Vista  marsh  in  Portage  County  regard- 
ing trouble  with  reproducing  animals  have  led  to  an  investigation  of 
acid  soil  hays  but  definite  results  have  not  as  yet  been  obtained. 
Analyses  of  samples  of  these  acid  marsh  hays  show,  however,  that 
they  have  not  sufficient  calcium  to  carry  on  successful  reproduction. 


New  Farm  Facts 


19 


Influence  of  Feed  on  Reaction  of  Milk 

Contrary  to  advice  commonly  given  to  farmers  that  certain  feeds 
cause  coagulation  of  condensed  milk,  results  of  feeding  sulphuric  acid 
have  proved  this  a fallacy. 

Cows  have  been  given  sulphuric  acid  in  addition  to  their  regular 
ration  by  H.  H.  Sommer  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  to  determine  the  in- 
fluence upon  the  milk  reaction.  On  a ration  of  silage,  corn  stover, 
mixed  clover  hay,  and  a grain  mixture  the  milk  showed  practically  a 
neutral  (neither  acid  nor  alkaline)  reaction.  Strong  sulphuric  acid  was 
then  added  to  the  ration  in  amounts  up  to  120  c.  c.  a day.  While  the 
ammonia  production  in  the  urine  rose,  there  was  absolutely  no  change 
in  the  milk  reaction. 

Further  work  on  the  problem  of  coagulated  milk,  which  has  been  SO 
baffling  to  condenseries,  has  been  carried  into  a study  of  the  influence 
of  the  lactation  period  by  J.  H.  Jones  (Agricultural  Chemistry) i It 
has  been  thought  that  toward  the  end  of  the  period  cow’s  milk  would 
coagulate  more  readily  by  heat.  Observations  extended  over  a period 
10  months  gave  no  indication  that  the  lactation  period  influences  in 
any  way  the  readiness  of  coagulation. 

The  so-called  “alcohol  test,”  as  well  as  the  acid  test  used  by  con- 
denseries for  judging  the  acceptability  of  milk,  appears  to  be  unreliable. 
Milks  which  readily  coagulate  with  heat  may  or  may  not  coagulate 
with  alcohol. 


Chemistry  of  Fat-Soluble  Vitamines 

Additional  information  has  been  gathered  this  year  by  Mr.  Steenbock 
showing  that  the  fat-soluble  vitamine  cannot  generally  be  extracted 
from  plants  by  water,  ether,  or  fats  and  ether,  but  that  alcohol  and  ben- 
zene dissolve  it.  Making  the  vitamine  into  the  form  of  soap  in  the  cold 
does  not  destroy  it.  It  can  then  be  extracted  readily  from  the  “soaps” 
by  ether  and  accumulated  in  ether  with  dilute  alcohol.  This  behavior 
is  similar  to  that  or  carotin  (yellow  pigment)  extraction  and  suggests 
a kinship  between  the  two.  Preparations  have  been  made  in  crystal 
form  and  fed  to  rats  who  were  declining  in  weight.  Immediate  recovery 
occurred  and  growth  followed  after  a short  period,  indicating  that  the 
actual  vitamine  itself  was  being  dealt  with  and  used. 

Vitamines  Related  to  Plant  and  Animal  Colors 

Reference  has  been  made  in  previous  reports  to  the  work  of  Mr. 
Steenbock  and  his  colleagues  on  the  presence  of  much  larger  quantities 
of  the  fat-soluble  vitamine  in  such  colored  plant  products  as  yellow 
corn  and  yellow  sweet  potatoes  in  comparison  with  white  varieties 
of  these  crops.  The  work  has  been  extended  this  year  in  studying  the 
distribution  of  water-soluble  vitamine.  Sugar  beets  were  found  to  be 
low  in  content,  while  no  great  difference  could  be  seen  between  red 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


and  white  carrots.  In  cabbage  the  same  content  was  found  in  both 
the  green  and  the  white  leaves  where  no  chlorophyll  (green  coloring) 
had  developed. 

Future  studies  are  planned  to  determine  the  vitamine  content  of  the 
leaves  of  yellow  compared  with  white  carrots  to  prove  wTiether  the 
failure  of  the  yellow  pigment  to  occur  in  the  roots  is  due  to  entire 
absence  of  vitamine  in  the  plant  or  whether  it  is  a matter  of  distribu- 
tion failing  to  reach  the  roots. 

As  indicated  by  Palmer  and  reaffirmed  by  the  department  of  agri- 
cultural chemistry,  pig’s  liver  is  rich  in  fat-soluble  vitamine  but  con- 
tains no  pigment  of  the  carotin  or  yellow  pigment  type.  March  and 
April  creamery  butter  fats  have  been  found  to  contain  only  1/20  as 
much  pigment  as  June  butter  fats,  but  are  equal  in  their  ability  to 
furnish  the  fat-soluble  vitamine.  Yet  another  element  enters  into 
consideration  through  the  discovery  made  by  Mr.  Steenbock  that  Jersey 
animal  fat,  which  is  intensely  yellow,  contains  an  abundance  of  the 
vitamine,  while  the  Durham  fat,  which  is  almost  pigment-free,  contains 
none  of  it.  Unless  the  pigment  can  exist  in  both  colored  and  colorless 
forms  the  indications  from(  the  pig’s  liver  and  butter  fat  are  that  the 
color  need  not  exist  at  the  same  time  with  the  fat-soluble  vitamine. 

Milk  Vitamine  Influenced  by  Green  Pasture 

Is  milk  produced  on  green  pastures  different  in  constitution  and 
value  from  that  made  from  dry  feeds?  Mr.  Hart,  Mr.  Steenbock,  and 
N.  R.  Ellis  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  have  found  that  summer-pasture 
milk  acts  differently  from  dry-feed  milk  in  preventing  scurvy.  The 
udder  has  no  power  of  forming  the  vitamines  that  are  now  recognized 
as  so  potent  in  proper  nutrition,  but  in  the  milk  these  substances 
are  concentrated  from  the  diet  of  the  animal.  These  observations 
have  shown  that  50  parts  of  summer  pasture  milk  exerted  fully  as  much 
effect  as  75  parts  of  dry  feed  milk  in  prevention  of  scurvy.  Milk  pro- 
duced from  dry  hays  was,  however,  not  wholly  lacking  in  these 
essentials. 

Silage  from  corn,  well  matured  and  partly  dried  before  put  into  the 
silo,  did  not  increase  the  amount  of  the  anti-scurvy  factor  in  milk, 
nor  did  sugar  mangels  prove  any  different.  Silage  or  sugar  mangel 
milk  was  in  a class  with  the  dry  feed  milk  and  unlike  the  summer  pas- 
ture milk  in  its  content  of  the  vitamine  that  prevents  scurvy. 

Does  Dried  Milk  Protect  Against  Scltrvy? 

Either  the  partial  or  the  complete  destruction  of  anti-scorbutic  vita- 
mine occurs  upon  the  drying  of  natural  materials.  This  may  be  due 
to  heat  or  to  heat  and  oxygen.  It  has  been  shown  by  Mr.  Ellis  that 
milk  powder  made  according  to  the  process  involving  a spray  in  heated 
air  has  been  found  to  have  lost  its  anti-scorbutic  property,  while  milk 
powder  dried  by  the  drum  process  has  not  completely  lost  the  vita- 


New  Farm  Facts 


21 


■liitiiiiimtiitiiiinniititiiiiiiiiMtiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiimniiiiitiiiiiiiiiiniiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiitiitiiiitiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiMiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiitiiiiiiniuiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiimiii 


MAKING  SCIENCE  SERVE  THE  HOME 


Children — ^the  builders  of  the  future — and  the  home,  most 
potent  force  of  the  present,  are  both  dependent  upon  women. 
While  it  is  true  that  many  women  with  no  professional  train- 
ing for  either  of  these  duties  have  succeeded,  yet  the  ap- 
plication of  science  to  the  problems  of  the  home  must  cause 
far-reaching  improvements. 

Home  economics  is  teaching  mothers  how  to  save  the  lives 
of  babies  by  feeding  and  caring  for  them  properly.  In  Wis- 
consin alone  over  half  the  deaths  among  infants  are  due 
to  neglect  or  lack  of  information  among  mothers.  Such 
measures  as  feeding  the  right  food  at  the  proper  time  and 
giving  simple  treatments  for  the  common  diseases  of  child- 
hood will  result  in  the  saving  of  thousands  of  lives. 

Reducing  the  routine  work  of  the  average  home  is  another 
task  of  home  economics.  At  present,  American  homes  are 
100  to  300  per  cent  inefficient  contrasted  with  what  they  might 
be  if  modem  business  methods  were  applied.  Better  plan- 
ning of  houses,  re-arrangement  of  furniture,  use  of  labor-saving 
devices  and  short-cuts  of  all  kinds  to  reduce  this  waste  have 
been  demonstrated. 

Home  economics  teaches  the  housewife  how  the  food  re- 
quirements of  the  members  of  her  family  vary  and  how  she 
may  meet  these  needs  both  scientifically  and  cheaply.  From 
the  standpoint  of  marketing,  home  economics  has  analyzed 
quantity  buying  and  the  problems  of  ready-to-eat  and  home 
cooked  foods. 

For  the  home  dressmaker,  home  economics  has  devised  prac- 
tical aids,  ranging  from  hints  on  the  better  use  of  the  sewing 
machine  to  the  selection  of  colors  and  fabrics  for  garments.  It 
has  also  analyzed  textiles  and  devised  tests  to  help  the  house- 
wife in  choosing  pure  fabrics.  It  has  studied  the  relative  econ- 
omy of  the  ready-to-wear  compared  with  the  home-made  gar- 
ments and  offered  definite  suggestions  as  a result. 

In  addition  to  analyzing  the  home  from  the  practical  stand- 
point, the  artistic  has  been  considered  as  well.  Home  eco- 
nomics has  revived  picturesque  arts  and  crafts  and  has  shown 
how  to  make  the  most  modest  home  beautiful  by  the  taste- 
ful selection  of  furniture  and  the  use  of  home-made  decora- 
tions. 





22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


mine.  Oxidation  (action  of  oxygen,  as  in  the  air)  by  various  agents 
greatly  increases  the  rate  at  which  this  vitamine  is  destroyed  by  heat. 
This  would  indicate  that  the  vitamine  is 'destroyed  primarily  through 
oxidation  and  that  if  drying  processes  could  be  conducted  in  the  ab- 
sence of  oxygen,  chances  for  preservation  of  this  vitamine  would  be 
greatly  increased. 

Food  Values  as  Affected  by  Home  and  Commercial  Methods  of 

Preparation 

Tests  by  Marguerite  Davis  (Home  Economics)  aimed  to  discover  the 
effect  of  methods  of  applying  heat  and  the  effect  of  long  keeping  on 
the  food  qualities  which  protect  against  diseases  in  children.  These 
tests  show  that  while  fresh  milk,  fruit  and  vegetables  are  the  best  pro- 
tection against  scurvy  and  rickets,  yet  because  of  the  greater  ease  of 
storing  and  transportation  it  is  possible  to  retain  the  protective  quali- 
ties, providing  the  boiling  temperature  is  applied  through  a short 
period  and  the  water  in  which  the  food  is  cooked  is  also  used. 

There  is  a difference  in  results  from  the  use  of  the  same  kind  of 
canned  vegetables  put  out  by  different  manufacturers.  For  example, 
in  feeding  to  protect  guinea  pigs  from  scurvy  three  brands  of  spinach 
gave  excellent  results,  whereas  the  fourth  brand  had  no  protective 
power.  The  canned  string  beans  used  failed  to  protect  the  animals  fed. 

Dried  cabbage  and  dried  carrot  used  as  protective  foods  delayed  the 
onset  of  scurvy,  but  did  not  prevent  it.  Dried  string  beans  had  no 
protective  value.  Dried  apples  furnished  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  gave  full  protection  to  male  guinea  pigs  on  an 
otherwise  scurvy  producing  diet,  but  failed  to  protect  the  females 
through  their  reproduction  period.  Pasteurized  cider  delayed  the  on- 
set of  scurvy  but  commercial  grape  juice  did  not  protect  the  animal 
from  scurvy. 

Dried  milk  prepared  by  heating  for  a few  seconds  at  240°  F. — a 
method  used  by  the  Commission  for  Feeding  Children  in  Europe — was 
studied.  In  an  experiment  continued  through  three  generations  on  the 
milk  diet,  this  preparation  protected  guinea  pigs  from  scurvy.  This 
again  illustrates  the  importance  of  the  method  of  preparation  in  pre- 
paring food  in  commercial  processes. 

While  the  antiscorbutic  vitamine  (anti-scurvy)  is  known  to  be  de- 
stroyed in  most  of  the  processes  used  in  commercial  and  home  cookery, 
it  is  not  so  well  known  that  the  vitamine  (antineuretic) , which  aids  in 
keeping  the  nervous  system  normal,  passes  into  the  water  in  which 
foods  are  cooked.  The  experimental  diet  upon  which  pigeons  develop 
polyneuritis  within  40  to  80  days  was  modified  by  the  addition  of  baked 
potato,  boiled  potato  and  raw  onion  respectively,  with  the  result  that 
baked  potato  was  more  effective  than  boiled  potato;  raw  potato  more 
effective  than  raw  onion,  but  canned  string  beans  were  valueless  as  a 
source  of  the  vitamine. 


New  Farm  Facts 


23 


The  general  conclusions  are  that  fresh  food  and  quickly  cooked  foods 
are  best;  that  raw  foods  as  fruits  and  green  salad  plants  should  be 
prominent  in  the  diet;  that  in  canning  or  preserving  the  processes 
used  should  be  those  which  do  not  demand  excessive  temperatures  for 
a long  time,  but  that  even  with  this  precaution  raw  fruits  or  raw 
juices  should  also  appear  in  the  diet  of  children. 

Animals  vary  as  to  their  susceptibility  to  the  deficiencies  in  the  diet. 
The  experimental  rats  were  able  to  reproduce  on  a ration  of  grain  and 
skimmed  milk,  showing  feebleness  and  poor  blood  condition  (anemia) 
only  in  the  third  generation;  whereas,  on  the  same  diet  puppies  (one 
month  old  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment)  developed  a condition 
that  resembled  infantile  rickets.  This  study  is  being  continued  with 
the  prospect  of  gaining  added  knowledge  as  to  the  cause  and  possible 
prevention  of  rickets.  At  present  it  emphasizes  the  need  for  the  feed- 
ing of  whole  milk  to  young  children  and  also  the  necessity  of  feeding  a 
higher  ration  than  will  just  protect  the  child  from  inal-nutrition. 

Leg  Weakness  in  Chickens  due  to  Lack  of  Roughage 

Raising  chickens  in  confinement  or  out  of  season  has  always  been 
impossible  due  to  leg  weakness.  The  symptoms  are  an  unsteady  gait, 
developing  into  difiiculty  of  movement,  with  a tendency  to  remain 
squatted  a good  deal  of  the  time;  a ruffled  condition  of  the  feathers; 
an  anemic  color  of  the  wattles  and  comb;  and  a swelling  of  leg  joints 
which  is  sometimes  permanent.  Poultrymen  have  explained  leg  weak- 
ness as  due  to  lack  of  exercise,  over-feeding,  or  absence  of  green  feed, 
and  their  remedy  has  been  to  “feed  light,”  provide  a suitable  scratch, 
and  if  possible,  feed  some  green  feed.  Farmers  who  start  their  incu- 
bators early  and  before  weather  conditions  are  favorable  for  placing 
the  chicks  out  of  doors  experience  the  trouble. 

Messrs.  Halpin  and  Hart  after  several  seasons’  work  on  this  subject 
have  concluded  that  the  source  of  trouble  lies  in  the  lack  of  suitable 
roughage  in  the  ration.  Paper,  charcoal,  agar  agar,  dirt,  and  Fuller’s 
earth  were  used.  Paper  in  the  concentration  of  10  per  cent  of  the 
ration  was  the  most  effective  roughage  used;,  agar  agar  was  much  less 
effective;  and  Fuller’s  earth  was  almost  worse  than  nothing. 

That  the  disease  is  not  scurvy  is  shown  by  the  use  of  green  rough- 
age,  green  clover,  and  orange  juice.  None  of  these  materials  in  the 
absence  of  suitable  roughage  prevented  the  progress  of  the  malady. 
Provision  for  green  feed  and  plenty  of  exercise  will  not  prevent  leg 
weakness  if  the  bird  at  the  same  time  is  overfed  a concentrated  ration. 
With  paper  as  10  per  cent  of  the  ration,  with  charcoal  or  dirt  10  to  20 
per  cent,  success  was  obtained  in  rearing  baby  chicks  of  40  to  1000 
grams  weight  upon  a diet  of  casein,  dextrin,  butter  fat,  salts,  and  yeast. 
Without  roughage,  leg  weakness  always  developed. 

Plowing  of  the  poultry  yard  in  the  spring  so  that  the  fowls  may  be 
on  upturned  dirt  is  no  doubt  beneficial  because  the  chickens  eat  a 
considerable  amount  of  dirt.  It  would  appear  that  roughage  is  as 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiuiiiiiiuiiuiiiiiiuiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiinmiimiiimmmiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiitiiiMiiiiii 
I mill 

SCIENCE  TURNS  SIDE  LINE  TO  PROFITABLE  IN- 
COME SOURCE 

Althougli  poultry  raising  on  ths  average  farm  has  often 
been  considered  merely  a side  line — a concession  to  the  house- 
wife’s need  for  emergency  meat  or  fresh  eggs  for  cooking,  or 
a source  of  “pin  money,’’  poultry  and  eggs  rank  high  in  value 
among  the  leading  farm  products  of  Wisconsin. 

Fortunately,  Wisconsin  farmers  are  recognizing  more  fully 
the  importance  of  this  by-product  of  the  farm.  They  know 
now  that  waste  material — otherwise  a total  loss — is  used  by 
the  flocks  to  aid  in  producing  eggs  and  meat  which  will  bring 
good  prices.  They  know  that  additional  grain,  used  for 
poultry  feeding,  is  “sold’’  to  the  flocks  at  first  cost.  They 
know  that  not  only  is  the  “upkeep’’  of  the  poultry  business 
inexpensive  but  that  the  “original  cost’’  of  getting  started 
in  it  is  correspondingly  low — a small  piece  of  land,  a poultry 
house,  and  a flock. 

The  poultry  husbandman  has  demonstrated  that  the  profit- 
able flock  should  not  be  housed  in  filthy  quarters,  given  poor 
food  and  water,  and  forced  to  fight  mites  and  lice.  He  has 
proven  to  the  satisfaction  of  their  owners  that  one-third  of 
the  average  flocks  may  be  culled  and  sent  to  market  without 
affecting  the  egg  production.  He  has  demonstrated  the  im- 
portance of  breeding  from  good  males.  He  has  shown  that  lime 
in  the  form  of  oyster  or  clam  shells  is  needed  by  the  hen  if  she 
is  to  lay  eggs;  that  proper  food  must  be  supplied  her  in  winter 
if  she  is  to  accumulate  enough  energy  to  produce  eggs;  and 
that  sunshine,  warm  quarters,  and  pure  water  are  necessary 
for  a good  farm  flock. 

Poultry  husbandry  is  still  a young,  but  proven  art. 


iiiiitiiiiiiiininitiiiiiiiniiiiiiiuiiiiniiiiMiiiiiiniitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiniiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiMniiniiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMniiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiMiii 


New  Farm  Facts 


25 


essential  a factor  in  successful  rearing  of  poultry  as  protein,  carbo- 
hydrates, fats  or  any  vitamine.  The  fiber  of  plant  tissue  seems  to 
have  some  real  value  and  apparently  the  liberal  use  of  wheat  bran 
in  chick  feeds  finds  justification. 

Oyster  Shells  for  Egg  Production 

The  results  obtained  last  year  by  Mr.  Halpin  on  the  lime  carriers 
for  egg  production  showed  that  oyster  shells  led,  with  clam  shells  a 


FIG.  6.— EFFECT  OF  WATER-SOLUBLE  VITAMINE 

Chick  on  right  received  2 per  cent  of  yeast;  on  left  15  per  cent.  A rat  grows 
normally  upon  the  water-soluble  vitamine  content  of  yeast  when  it  constitutes  2 per 
cent  of  the  ration,  but  a baby  chick  requires  six  to  seven  times  that  quantity. 

close  second.  Studies  made  this  year  have  dealt  with  the  fineness  of 
material.  Pulverized  oyster  shells  which  would  pass  through  a 40  mesh 
sieve  have  lowered  the  egg  production.  This  result  is  not  due  neces- 
sarily to  the  greater  retention  in  the  tract  of  the  crushed  oyster  shells 
over  the  powdered,  because  cracked  bone  gives  a considerably  lower  egg 
production  than  oyster  shells  yet  it  is  just  as  coarse.  No  reason  can 
be  given  at  present  to  show  why  oyster  or  clam  shells  are  better  than 
other  forms  of  lime. 

Prevention  of  Roup  and  Chicken  Pox 

Several  flocks  of  poultry,  were  treated  during  the  winter  of  1919 
and  1920  with  roup  and  chicken  pox  vaccine  by  B.  A.  Beach  (Veter 


26  ' Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 

inary  Science)  and  Mr.  Halpin.  In  a flock  of  2,000  single-comb,  white 
leghorns,  roup  and  chicken  pox  broke  out  early  in  December  and  500 
birds  had  died  before  December  27.  A vaccine  was  made  and  used 
on  approximately  1,300  birds  between  that  date  and  January  15.  In 
order  to  determine  the  efficiency  of  the  vaccine  one  pen  was  left  un- 
vaccinated. Only  two  or  three  birds  in  the  flock  died  subsequent  to 
the  vaccination,  but  in  the  pen  which  was  not  immunized  the  death 
rate  continued  the  same.  The  chickens  in  this  pen  were  then  vac- 
cinated and  deaths  ceased  in  about  a week.  On  January  25  the 
trouble  had  been  stopped  and  only  a few  rare  cases  occurred  afterwards. 


EIG.  7.— chickens  MAKE  RAPID  GROWTH  ON  MILK 

At  the  end  of  eight  weeks  Lot  1— water  fed— averaged  5.6  ounces;  Lot  2— fresh 
buttermilk— 12.4  ounces;  Lot  3— fresh  skimmilk— 13.9  ounces;  and  Lot  4 — fresh  whole 
milk— weighed  18.9  ounces;  showing  the  advantage  of  the  skimmilk  ami  whole  milk 
in  a ration  for  baby  chicks. 

Work  on  two  smaller  flocks  did  not  appear  so  successful,  but  the 
fault  may  be  due  to  the  method  of  preparing  the  vaccine.  While  the 
outbreak  of  roup  and  chicken  pox  during  last  year  was  exceptionally 
heavy  it  is  expected  that  there  will  be  much  less  of  the  disease  in 
1920-21. 

High  Production  in  the  Poultry  Flock 

Beginning  six  years  ago  with  only  two  hens  whose  yearly  egg  laying 
records  were  more  than  200,  Mr.  Halpin  has  shown  what  may  be  ac- 
complished in  building  up  a high  producing  flock.  K,  227,  a single 
comb  White  Leghorn,  has  just  completed  a record  of  284  eggs  in  one 
year  breaking  all  previous  records  in  this  state.  She  is  one  of  a flock 
of  100  hens  40  of  which  have  laid  more  than  200  eggs  in  a year. 
No  artificial  heat,  stimulants,  electric  lights  or  other  forcers  were  used ; 
and  the  poultry  house  is  one  of  construction  similar  to  that  found 
on  many  farms. 


New  Farm  Facts 


27 


The  feed  consisted  of  a scratch  ration  composed  of  two  parts  cracked 
corn,  one  part  whole  barley,  and  one  part  whole  wheat,  fed  “light” 
in  the  morning  and  “heavy”  in  the  evening.  A mash  mixed  from  100 
pounds  corn  meal,  100  pounds  bran,  100  pounds  middlings,  100  pounds 
gluten,  100  pounds  beef  scraps,  and  2 pounds  of  salt  was  placed  before 
the  hens  at  all  times.  Generally  two  pounds  of  grain  were  fed  for 
every  pound  of  mash.  Hoppers  also  contained  oyster  shells,  char- 
coal, and  limestone  grit.  During  cold  weather  the  mash  was  mixed  wet 
with  5 pounds  of  fresh  meat  for  100  hens  three  times  a week,  usually 
with  water  but  occasionally  with  buttermilk  to  introduce  variety  into 
the  ration.  Green  feeds,  such  as 
mangels  and  cabbage  were  in- 
troduced into  the  ration  alter- 
nately to  give  more  variety,  but 
at  no  time  was  any  particular 
attention  given  No.  277  either  in 
care  or  special  feeding. 

Milk-Feeding  Baby  Chicks 

Milk  is  generally  recognized 
as  a valuable  feed  for  young 
chicks,  and  sour  milk  or  butter- 
milk have  usually  been  consid- 
ered better  feed  than  sweet  milk. 

Results  obtained  by  Mr.  Halpin 
during  the  past  year  show  no 
advantage  in  souring  the  milk 
nor  were  any  evil  effects  observed 
when  the  chicks  drank  first  sweet 
and  then  sour  milk. 

Four  lots  of  chicks  fed  the 
same  grain  and  mash  ration  in- 
creased in  weight  during  the 
first  two  weeks  as  follows:  meat  scrap,  74  per  cent;  dried  buttermilk, 
78  per  cent;  fresh  buttermilk,  86  per  cent;  sweet,  whole  milk,  107  per 
cent.  The  greatest  mortality  occurred  among  the  chicks  fed  meat  scrap 
and  dried  buttermilk.  Other  trials  warrant  the  conclusions  that  while 
the  greatest  gain  comes  from  the  use  of  whole  milk,  skimmilk  ranks 
next  and  buttermilk  is  apparently  the  least  desirable. 

The  increase  in  weight  costs  less  with  skimmilk  and  buttermilk  than 
with  skimmilk,  but  if  the  advisability  of  purchasing  a milk  substitute 
is  being  considered,  better  results  are  obtained  from  feeding  whole 
milk  during  the  first  two  or  three  weeks,  changing  later  to  the  sub- 
stitute. 


FIG.  8.-NOT  GOOD  LOOKING  BUT  A 
BANNER  EGG  PRODUCER 

"I’lie  premier  record  hen  of  the  University 
flock,  that  laid  284  eggs  in  one  year. 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


NEW  SCIENCE  SAVES  BREEDER  MANY  LOSSES 

Genetics,  the  science  which  deals  with  breeding  and  repro- 
duction of  plants  and  animals,  is  being  pressed  into  greater 
service. 

It  is  one  of  the  aims  of  the  geneticist  to  tell  the  breeder 
how  he  can  conduct  his  breeding  operations  more  efficiently, 
how  more  directly  to  produce  desired  results,  and  how  to 
avoid  bad  effects. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  is  for  the  breeder  to  be 
able  to  know  what  results  are  caused  by  heredity  and  what 
are  due  to  the  conditions  under  which  the  plant  or  animal  has 
been  raised,  such  as  feeding,  care,  and  exercise. 

It  is  extremely  important  that  the  breeder  know  the  effects 
of  " inbreeding.  For  it  is  well  known  that  practically  every 
improved  bread  of  animals  has  been  established  by  close  in- 
breeding,  yet  it  is  equally  certain  that  this  procedure  is  com- 
monly followed  by  bad  results.  As  a consequence  most  breed- 
ers avoid  it  as  much  as  possible.  What  is  the  meaning  of 
this  contradictory  evidence?  Why  is  inbreeding  highly  suc- 
cessful in  some  instances  and  equally  disastrous  in  others? 
Genetics  may  soon  supply  breeding  directions. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  genetics  is  a young  science, 
scarcely  twenty  years  old,  and  consequently  has  not  yet 
reached  the  point  where  it  can  offer  so  many  examples  of 
practical  application  as  can,  for  example,  tho  science  of  chem- 
istry. It  is,  however,  gradually  changing  profoundly  our 
whole  conception  of  heredity,  and  it  is  upon  heredity  that 
all  improvement  by  breeding  is  ultimately  based. 

nil 



Studies  on  Sex  Control 

Sex  control  has  always  interested  geneticists  and  breeders.  Riddle 
has  recently  maintained  that  by  forcing  over-production  of  eggs  in 
pigeons,  the  proportion  of  sexes  of  the  offspring  may  be  changed. 
L.  J.  Cole  (Genetics)  fails  to  find  in  our  data  on  pigeons  any  confirma- 
tion of  this  view.  M.  A.  Jull  (Genetics)  has,  however,  incubated  all 
the  eggs  laid  by  a number  of  hens  throughout  the  entire  season  and 
finds  that  there  is  a somewhat  definite  rise  in  the  proportion  of  females 
to  males  as  the  season  progresses. 


New  Farm  Facts 


29 


J.  L.  Lush  (Genetics),  starting  on  the  assumption  that  the  sperma- 
tozoa are  of  two  kinds  in  sex-determining  influences,  and  that  the 
process  is  perhaps  mechanical,  is  attempting  to  centrifuge  the  sperm 
and  see  if  it  is  possible  to  secure  two  groups.  While  some  modifica- 
tion of  the  normal  sex  ratio  has  been  obtained,  it  does  not  yet  corre- 
spond to  what  would  be  expected  from  the  theory. 


Study  of  Twins  in  Live  Stock 

To  determine  the  probable  rate  of  twin  production  with  increasing 
age.  Miss  S.  V.  Jones  (Genetics)  with  the  assistance  of  students  has 
compiled  records  of  American  Aberdeen  Angus  and  Hereford  herdbooks. 
The*  number  of  twins  produced  increases  rapidly  in  dams  up  to  6 to  8 
years  of  age,  remaining  about  constant  after  that  period.  With  sheep 
the  number  of  multiple  births  increases  up  to  6 years,  after  which 
there  is  a decline. 

Mr.  Cole  has  collected  a large  number  of  records  on  double  calves 
(monsters).  A study  of  color  markings  shows  a great  similarity  on 
the  duplicated  parts,  even  more  than  in  the  case  of  twin  calves.  Free 
martins  (imperfect  female  twin  born  with  a male)  and  their  bull  twins 
show  no  more  similarity  than  normal  twins,  showing  they  are  not  from 
a single  egg. 


Breeding  for  Soybean  Oil 

Hoping  to  secure  a drying  oil  that  might  be  used  for  paint  purposes, 
the  genetics  department  in  cooperation  with  the  agricultural  chemistry 
department,  has  been  studying  for  seven  years  the  possibility  of  in- 
creasing the  quality  of  oil  from  soy  beans.  Each  year  the  plants  yield- 
ing the  highest  and  lowest  quality  have  been  selected  and  used  for 
further  propagation. 

The  drying  quality  of  the  oil  is  measured  by  the  average  iodine  num- 
ber. The  chemical  analysis  of  the  selections  of  the  seventh  year  showed 
a high  line  strain  with  an  iodine  index  of  132,  while  the  low  line  strain 
was  124.  A difference  of  8 is  significant  and  shows  the  effect  of  selec- 
tion. Where  these  plants  are  carefully  examined,  the  low  line  strain 
was  found  to  be  entirely  of  a dwarf  type,  while  the  high  line  has  con- 
sistently produced  both  tall  and  dwarf  types.  This  seems  to  show  a 
definite  relation  between  plant  height  and  quality  of  oil.  The  taller 
plants  inherit  this  quality  and  are  not  tall  because  of  better  nutrition. 
There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  evidence  that  the  quality  of  oil  in 
the  tall  type  has  been  increased  by  selection.  The  breeding  process  so 
far  has  isolated  a high  producing  strain  as  well  as  a low-producing 
strain. 


30 


AYisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Impro\t;mext  of  Sweet  Corn 

The  canning  industry  in  Wisconsin  is  an  important  asset  to  the  state. 
The  position  of  first  importance  which  has  already  been  reached  with 
peas  may  be  duplicated  with  other  canning  crops  if  sufficient  attention 
is  given  to  improving  the  quality  of  the  product.  In  1919,  thirty-two 
factories  reported  to  the  agronomy  department  their  acreage,  yield  and 
output  of  sweet  corn  for  canning  purposes.  That  year  Wisconsin  ranked 
eighth  among  the  states  in  sweet  corn  acreage;  third  in  yield  per  acre, 
with  an  average  yield  of  2.6  tons  snapped  corn  to  the  acre.  The  total 
tonnage  of  nearly  20,000  tons — packed  635,000  cases — makes  Wisconsin 
rank  seventh  in  the  amount  canned. 

Starting  with  the  varieties  which  are  now  in  use  among  the  various 
canning  companies,  the  genetics  and  agronomy  departments  are  en- 
deavoring to  improve  the  seed  strains.  More  than  200  crosses  have 
been  made  between  commercial  varieties.  Self-pollination  has  also  been 
used  to  study  the  effect  of  inbreeding. 

Comparative  variety  tests  were  made  in  cooperation  with  the  Purdue 
Experiment  Station  and  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  in  Ohio, 
where  a number  of  different  strains  were  employed.  Tho  Wisconsin 
grown  seed  gave  a larger  yield  than  any  other  variety  tested  there. 


jiiniitiiniiMiiiiMMiiiiMtiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiniiiiMiiiiiifiiniiiiimiitmtiniitiiiiitinmtiiiMiMiiiiiiiiiiiijaiiiitiiitiiiuitiiiiifiiiiniiiiiiiniiiiiittiir.iiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiitiHiMnttitfttittiiiiiiiiiMiiiiitniiii 

SAVING  ANIMAL  LIFE 

Disease  levies  a heavy  tax.  To  the  livestock  farmer  ani- 
mal disorders  are  the  greatest  single  source  of  loss.  Thou- 
sands of  animals,  worth  millions  of  dollars,  die  each  year,  in 
many  cases  from  preventable  ills. 

Veterinary  science  is  often  able  to  prevent  disease  before 
it  occurs.  Serums,  vaccines,  disinfectants,  and  sanitation — 
each  plays  an  important  part  in  the  veterinarian’s  campaign 
against  disease.  Disease  may  be  cured.  Medicine,  surgery, 
care,  and  treatment  do  their  part  in  saving  the  aflOicted  ani- 
mal. Animal  suffering  is  eased. 

The  public  health  is  constantly  being  safeguarded  by  the 
trained  veterinarian  who  carefully  inspects  animal  products 
which  are  used  for  human  food.  The  food  inspection  service 
guards  our  table. 

The  veterinarian  is  a searcher  for  causes,  effects,  and  rem- 
edies. From  his  efforts,  together  with  those  of  the  bacter- 
iologist, have  come,  tuberculin,  hog  cholera  serum,  virus,  and 
many  other  remedies  which  save,  prevent  or  cure. 





New  Farm  Facts 


31 


New  Method  in  Detection  of  Johne’s  Disease 

This  peculiarly  baffling  disease,  which  resembles  bovine  tuberculosis, 
in  many  respects,  seems  to  be  getting  a foot-hold  in  the  state.  During 
the  last  year  B.  A.  Beach  (Veterinary  Science)  has  continued  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  disease  and  has  tested  7 herds  of  dairy  cattle  with 
johnin  (an  agent  that  permits  of  detecting  the  disease  similarly  to 
the  way  tuberculosis  is  detected  by  tuberculin).  Seven  per  cent  or  24 
of  the  325  animals  comprising  these  herds  reacted  to  this  test.  Post 
mortem  examinations  were  made  upon  15  of  the  reacting  animals  and 
tissues  from  them  were  studied  under  the  microscope.  Acid-fast  bac- 
teria resembling  Johne’s  bacillus  were  found  in  14  out  of  the  15  cases. 

Efforts  were  made  to  develop  an  easier  method  of  finding  the  or- 
ganisms microscopically.  The  result  of  this  work  was  a modification 
in  the  method  previously  used.  A small  piece  of  the  suspected  tissue 
is  treated  with  full  strength  commercial  formaldehyde  for  one  hour, 
then  placed  in  an  incubator  or  drying  oven  until  perfectly  dry.  The 
tissue  is  then  powdered  in  a mortar  and  treated  with  25  per  cent 
antiformin  solution  for  two  hours.  The  antiformin  is  diluted  by 
adding  an  equal  volume  of  distilled  water  and  the  acid-fast  organisms 
are  searched  for  in  the  sediment. 

In  studying  the  distribution  of  Johne’s  bacilli  in  the  infected  tissues, 
it  has  been  impossible  to  find  them  deeper  than  the  submucous  coat  of 
the  intestines.  This  is  evidence  that  these  germs  gain  entrance  to  the 
body  from  the  intestinal  canal  and  emphasizes  the  need  for  keeping 
the  feed  of  cattle  from  becoming  contaminated  with  excreta. 

Accuracy  of  Tuberculin  Tests 

In  addition  to  the  ordinary  method  of  injecting  tuberculin  under  the 
skin,  a number  of  special  methods  have  been  devised  within  recent 
years.  All  of  these  have  been  used  with  varying  success,  the  only 
difficulty  in  their  use  being  that  occasionally  a diseased  animal  fails 
to  react. 

The  veterinary  science  department,  in  cooperation  with  the  State 
Veterinarian,  has  experimented  on  a single  large  herd  of  cattle  in  an 
attempt  to  determine  the  comparative  value  of  several  different  meth- 
ods of  tuberculin  testing.  In  addition  to  the  subcutaneous  method, 
in  which  the  tuberculin  is  introduced  under  the  skin,  the  intradermal, 
or  injection  directly  into  the  skin;  and  the  sensitized  ophthalmic,  or  in- 
troduction into  the  eye;  the  intravenous,  or  introduction  directly  into 
the  blood  veins  have  been  used.  The  best  restults  seemed  to  have  been  ob- 
tained from  the  combined  sensitized  ophthalmic  and  intradermal  tests. 
Particular  attention  was  given  to  the  intravenous  test  since  it  permits 
the  very  rapid  distribution  of  the  tuberculin  throughout  the  body. 
While  it  proved  very  satisfactory  in  some  ways,  in  the  experimental 
work  it  was  found  that  too  large  a percentage  of  animals  which  showed 
tuberculous  lesions  at  the  time  of  slaughter  had  failed  to  react. 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Bull  Nose  of  Pigs 

Considerable  attention  has  been  given  this  last  year  by  F.  B.  Hadley 
(Veterinary  Science)  to  a study  of  the  disease  known  as  sore  mouth  or 
“bull  nose”  of  pigs.  This  infection  shows  itself  in  several  different 
forms,  depending  upon  the  organs  affected.  When  confined  to  the 
mouth  the  disease  is  known  as  sore  mouth,  or  necrotic  stomatitis; 
where  the  nasal  passages  are  involved,  it  is  called  “bull  nose;”  where 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  is  affected,  necrotic 
gastritis;  and  where  the  lungs  are  affected,  necrotic  pneumonia. 


FIG.  9.— SUCKLING  PIG  AFFECTED  WITH  BULL  NOSE 

The  large  .swelling  on  the  right  side  of  the  pig’s-  nose  interfered  with  breathing  and 
finally  caused  death.  This  bacterial  disease  affects  the  nasal  pasages  and  causes 
an  enlargement  of  the  tissues.  It  may  be  controlled  by  a mouth  wash  and  careful 
sanitation. 

Filth-borne  infection,  responsible  for  the  development  of  this  disease, 
causes  inflammation  and  an  enormous  increase  in  the  connective  tissue 
cells,  which  accounts  for  the  external  swellings  always  seen  in  the 
cases  of  “bull  nose.” 

The  treatment  of  sore  mouth  is  performed  by  cutting  out  the  necrotic 
tissue  from  the  ulcers  and  applying  tincture  of  iodine.  The  mouth  of 
the  diseased  pig,  and  every  pig  in  the  herd  as  well,  should  be  flushed 
with  a 3 per  cent  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash.  Owing  to  the 
possibility  of  transfer  of  infection  from  the  udder  of  the  sow  it  also 
should  be  washed  with  the  same  solution. 

The  experience  of  the  department  is  that  the  disease  may  be  checked 
by  turning  all  pigs  out  on  pasture.  New  quarters  should  be  provided, 
or  the  old  ones  cleaned  thoroughly  and  disinfected. 


New  Farm  Facts 


33 


Sterility  of  Cows  Often  Preventable 

Sterility  of  dairy  cattle  seriously  affects  the  profits  of  the  herd.  In  a 
study  of  this  problem  by  Mr.  Hadley  and  O.  Stader  (Veterinary  Science) 
sterility  was  found  to  be  due  mainly  to  secondary  genital  infections. 
A number  of  different  kinds  of  micro-organisms  were  found  in  the  cases 
studied.  While  ordinarily  unimportant,  the  lowering  of  the  animal’s 
resistance  by  abortion  infection,  encourages  the  growth  of  these  bac- 
teria. Preparations  have  been  made  from  cultures  of  the  various  or- 
ganisms isolated,  producing  what  are  known  as  “autogenous  bac- 
terins’’,  with  which  the  affected  animals  have  been  treated.  Although 
the  number  of  tests  made  so  far  has  not  been  sufficient  to  permit  of 
definite  conclusions,  a very  marked  improvement  has  resulted  in  sev- 
eral cases  after  the  injection  of  cultures. 

Excellent  results  have  also  been  secured  by  irrigating  the  affected  or- 
gans with  a 1 per  cent  solution  of  common  salt.  This  method,  first 
advocated  at  Wisconsin,  has  now  been  adopted  with  good  results  by 
farmers  and  veterinarians  generally. 

An  Anthrax  Outbreak 

Examination  of  diseased  organs  sent  from  a farm  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  state  confirmed  the  presence  of  anthrax  after  Mr.  Hadley  had 
inoculated  a guinea  pig  and  a rabbit  with  blood  from  the  tissues  of  the 
cow.  Both  animals  died  and  the  anthrax  bacillus  was  demonstrated 
to  be  the  cause  of  death.  Four  cows,  a calf,  and  three  pigs  died  on  the 
farm  where  the  outbreak  occurred,  the  pigs  having  been  fed  the  car- 
cass of  the  calf.  Two  sheep  died  later. 

Very  unusual  and  unexpected  outbreaks  of  anthrax  occur  at  times 
and  in  this  particular  case  it  developed  that  the  owner  pastured  this 
animal  in  a field  on  which  two  years  before  animals  were  lost  from 
anthrax. 

Valuable  lessons  may  be  learned  from  this  outbreak.  A laboratory 
examination  is  essential  in  establishing  a diagnosis  and  should  be  made 
early  to  be  of  most  value;  carcasses  of  animals  dead  from  an  infectious 
disease  should  never  be  fed  as  they  may  be  the  source  of  further  in- 
fection; and  fields  once  infected  cannot  be  regarded  as  safe  for  pas- 
turage for  years  afterward. 


Vaccination  Against  Contagious  Abortion 

Contagious  abortion  annually  levies  a heavy  toll  on  the  dairy  indus- 
try; and  the  stock-grower  is  comparatively  helpless  against  the  at- 
tacks of  the  disease. 

Vaccine  sufficient  to  immunize  850  head  of  cattle  was  prepared  and 
distributed  under  the  supervision  of  Mr.  Hadley.  Theoretically  a vac- 
cine of  this  sort  should  stimulate  the  growth  of  enough  protective 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


bodies  to  prevent  any  abortion  germs,  that  may  subsequently  infect  the 
body,  from  producing  the  disease. 

Reports  gathered  from  stock  breeders  and  dairymen  throughout  the 
state,  who  have  used  this,  vaccine,  indicate  in  a large  percentage  of 
cases  that  very  beneficial  results  have  followed  its  use,  but  until 
complete  reports  on  all  cattle  vaccinated  have  been  received,  it  has 
been  thought  best  not  to  distribute  any  more  vaccine. 

Efforts  toward  the  production  of  a highly  superior  vaccine  will  be 
continued,  as  it  is  evident  that  contagious  abortion  must  be  fought 
steadily  and  continuously. 

Mistaken  Medicine 

Mr.  Hadley  and  E.  Truog  (Soils)  have  given  valuable  service  in  find- 
ing the  source  of  material  thought  to  have  poisoned  animals. 

A veterinarian  in  upper  Wisconsin  prescribed  a dose  of  glaubers 
salts;  the  owner  of  the  cows  ordered  the  medicine  from  the  home  store, 
and  gave  the  dose  as  instructed.  The  cows  died  and  an  analysis  of  the 
salt  given  them  showed  it  to  be  saltpetre,  which  is  an  irritant  poison. 
A diagnosis  of  poisoning  with  the  “wrong  medicine”  was  made. 

An,  examination  of  the  stomachs  of  several  cows  that  had  pastured 
along  the  railroad  revealed  large  amounts  of  arsenic.  Investigation 
showed  that  the  weeds  had  been  sprayed  with  a weed-killer  a short  time 
before  the  cattle  fed  on  them. 

Wattle  Test  for  Tuberculosis  of  Poultry 

The  wattle  test  for  tuberculosis  in  poultry  has  been  used  with  rea- 
sonable success  in  eliminating  tuberculosis  from  a flock  of  500  chickens 
at  Lone  Rock  by  Mr.  Beach.  In  the  wattle  test,  0.25  c.  c.  of  avian 
tuberculin  is  injected  with  a very  fine  hypodermic  needle  just  beneath 
the>  outer  skin  of  the  wattle.  If  the  bird  is  tuberculous,  one  or  both 
of  the  wattles  will  swell  in  12  to  48  hours  from  two-  to  twenty  times 
the  normal  size.  The  entire  flock  has  been  tested  twice  each  year  for 
the  past  three  years,  and  all  reacting  birds  removed,  but  it  has  been 
found  impossible  to  eradicate  the  disease  in  this  way.  The  mortality, 
however,  as  a result  of  this  method,  has  been  reduced  from  15  per  cent 
to  less  than  1 per  cent  annually. 

“Little  Plate”  Method  of  Counting  Bacteria 

Some  simpler,  easier  method  of  determining  the  numbers  of  bacteria 
and  of  Identification  has  long  been  needed  not  only  in  the  field  of 
medicine  but  in  the  dairy  industry  as  well.  Milk  supply  companies 
and  dairy  inspectors  are  in  constant  need  of  some  simple,  rapid  method 


New  Farm  Facts 


35 


ujiuniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiMiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiimiMiiiMiiiiintiniiiiiiitiiiimii 


BACTERIA  EITHER  FRIENDS  OR  FOES 

Growing  green  plants  of  economic  value  is  the  chief  work 
of  the  farmer — in  a sense  all  other  phases  of  his  work  are  in- 
cidental and  not  essential  to  the  life  of  man. 

The  green  plants  must  be  grown  in  order  that  the  other 
forms  of  life  may  have  food.  Nature  has  not  supplied  the 
soil  with  an  unending  quantity  of  plant  food  which  can  be 
mined  as  in  coaL  What  the  plant  takes  from  the  soil  must 
be  returned  to  it  in  the  form  of  organic  matter  if  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  is  to  be  maintained.  From  the  soil  to  the 
plant  the  food  travels  and  then  when  it  is  returned  to  the 
soil,  multitudes  of  living  things  change  the  organic  matter  to 
plant  food.  Chief  among  these  living  minute  bodies  are  the 
bacteria  that  are  responsible  for  the  process  of  decay,  and  for 
nitrogen  gathering.  Without  the  work  of  these  strange 
friends  no  crops  could  be  grown. 

But  bacteria  would  also  spoil  the  food  that  it  is  necessary 
to  preserve  for  man  and  animals  during  the  winter.  To 
prevent  such  spoilage  man  has  canning,  drying,  smoking, 
salting,  and  cold  storage  methods  which  exert  such  a great 
influence  on  present  marketing  and  agriculture.  While  some 
bacteria  spoil  food,  others  like  those  in  sauer  kraut,  silage 
and  pickles  help  preserve  it.  Another  group  of  bacteria  are 
capable  of  growing  in  the  bodies  of  living  plants  and  ani- 
mals and  their  products  injure  the  host — ^they  cause  diseases, 
but  through  vaccination  the  bacteriologist  often  prevents  their 
attack  from  becoming  mortal. 

Each  day  every  farmer  must  consider  the  bacteria  in  many 
ways  in  growing  a crop,  in  preserving  and  preparing  foods  and 
fodders  and  in  fighting  disease.  He  must  reckon  with  bac- 
teria either  as  friends  or  foes. 

Man  can  live  without  cows,  without  horses,  without  sheep, 
without  hogs  or  hens  but  the  green  plant  and  the  bacteria  he 
must  have,  if  he  is  to  continue  to  exist. 

The  growing  of  the  green  plants  and  of  bacteria  are  the 
foundation  of  all  that  we  include  in  farming.  The  more  that 
is  known  about  the  bacteria  and  their  work,  and  the  more 
widely  such  knowledge  is  disseminated,  the  better  shall  we 
live. 

The  finding  of  facts  about  bacteria  and  the  giving  of  those 
facts  to  the  farmer  is  one  part  of  the  legitimate  work  of  the 
Experiment  Station  bacteriologists. 





IIMIIIIimillUIIIMNIIIIIIMlI 


36 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


of  making  a bacterial  count  in  milk.  To  provide  some  means  for  do- 
ing this,  W.  D.  Frost  and  Misses  A.  M.  Charlton  and  M.  F.  Little 
(Agricultural  Bacteriology)  have  devised  the  “little  plate”  method. 

This  method  has  proved  exceptionally  adaptable  for  it  makes  a re- 
liable diagnosis  in  5 rather  than  in  48  hours,  the  time  required  by  the 
older  way.  A field  outfit  provided  with  materials  for  the  analysis  of 
48  samples  with  incubator  and  all  necessary  equipment  for  making  the 
tests  makes  the  method  one  that  can  be  particularly  useful  because 


PIG.  m— “LITTLE  PLATE”  ilETHOD  SIMPLIFIES  COUNTING  OF  BACTERIA 

Although  this  field  outfit  Aveighs  only  20  pounds,  it  contains  incubator  and  all  neces- 
sary material  for  counting  the  bacteria  in  48  samples  of  milk. 


of  its  portability.  A Madison  dairy  company  has  used  the  method  for 
over  a year  to  control  its  pasteurized  milk  and  has  found  it  practical 
and  efficient. 


Are  Legume  Bacteria  Killed  by  Freezing? 

The  question  is  often  asked  as  to  whether  winter  freezing  kills  the 
legume  bacteria  in  the  soil  or  those  planted  with  the  seed  in  early 
spring,  making  it  necessary  to  reinoculate.  Experience  has  often 
shown  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  inoculate  even  though  no  legume 
has  been  grown  on  the  land  for  a number  of  years. 

During  March  and  April  in  1920  sweet  clover  seeds  were  inoculated 
with  nodule-forming  bacteria  by  E.  B.  Fred  (Agricultural  Bacteriology) 
and  exposed  to  temperatures  near  freezing  for  from  1 to  30  days.  In 
all  cases  the  growth  of  the  plants  which  followed  the  trial  was  accom- 
panied with  nodule  formation.  This  evidently  warrants  the  conclusion 
that  legume  bacteria  are  able  to  live  through  the  winter  and  will  with- 
stand “Winter  temperatures,  and  also  that  bacteria  planted  with  the 
seed  in  early  spring  will  be  able  to  induce  nodule  formation. 


New  Farm  Facts 


37 


jiiiiiiiiiiiiitMiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiinitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiinMiiiiiiinitiiiiiiiiitiniiiniiiniiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiitiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiitiiiitiiii 


SCIENCE  CONTRIBUTES  TO  ADVANCES  IN  DAIRYING 

Milk  products  have  come  down  through  all  the  ages  as  the 
essential  food  of  the  human  family,  yet  dairying  remained  a 
hazardous  undertaking  until  Wisconsin  inventions  transfonned 
it  into  a scientific  and  business-like  industry. 

Wisconsin  itself  is  the  foremost  state  in  the  Union  in  the 
production  of  milk  products.  It  has  more  dairy  cows,  makes 
more  cheese,  has  more  cow-testing  associations,  and  so  on 
through  an  endless  list  of  accomplishments  in  dairying.  But 
this  progress  has  all  hinged  on  a few  essential  dairy  tests 
without  which  milk  production  could  not  be  an  important  in- 
dustry, for  within  Wisconsin  originated  the  six  most  import- 
ant tests  kno-^  to  dairying. 

Agricultural  scientists  have  helped  to  make  Wisconsin  a dairy 
state  by  their  contributions  to  the  methods  of  manufacturing 
dairy  products.  We  might  have  large  herds  of  cows  even  if 
Babcock  had  not  given  us  his  great  test  for  butter  fat,  but  we 
could  not  know  which  were  the  good  ones;  we  might  make 
thousands  of  pounds  of  cheese  every  year  without  the  Wis- 
consin curd  tests  and  the  casein  test,  but  the  manufacture 
would  be  wasteful  and  perhaps  unprofitable;  we  might  market 
thousands  of  pounds  of  cheese  and  butter  without  the  mois- 
ture and  acidity  tests,  but  it  would  not  be  standardized. 

Succeeding  contributions  to  dairy  practices  by  agricultural 
scientists  have  helped  to  advance  and  develop  the  business 
of  producing,  manufacturing  and  distributing  one  of  nature’s 
greatest  foods  and  all  of  its  products  and  by-products. 


Ill mum mmmiimi mmmmm mmmmmmmmmmm 

iiiiiiiMiMiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMMiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiMiiiMiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiitiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiniiiiMmmimiimiimmiimiimiiMmiiii 

Pasteurized  Cheese-Making  Experiments 

J.  L.  Sammis  (Dairy  Husbandry)  has  continued  his  experiments  on 
the  production  of  Cheddar  cheese  from  pasteurized  milk,  using  a re- 
generative type  of  machine,  in  comparison  with  the  “drum”  type  of 
pasteurizer.  His  results  indicate  little  or  no  difference  in  flavor  when 
the  cheese  was  30  days  old,  but  the  product  is  being  held  for  further 
comparison. 


1 


38 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


ENGINEERING  THE  FARMSTEAD 

The  American  farmer  is  just  naturally  an  engineer.  In 
conquering  the  wilderness  he  has  been  forced  to  solve  many 
engineering  problems  and  often  without  instruments  or  tech- 
nical knowledge  of  any  sort.  This  has  helped  him  to  develop 
a keen  sense  of  proportion  and  a self-reliance  that  is  one  of 
the  greatest  a^ets  of  an  engineer  or  farmer.  Nevertheless, 
the  farmer  needs  the  technical  engineer  in  tight  places. 

American  farmers  produce  more  crops  than  do  farmers  of 
any  other  nation.  An  abundance  of  rich  soil  and  other  nat- 
ural resources  do  not  alone  account  for  it.  Nor  is  intensive 
farming  the  answer.  The  real  reason  is  that  in  America  the 
“Age  of  Machinery”  has  been  made  to  serve  the  farmer  as 
well  as  the  manufacturer.  Power  machinery  enables  the 
American  farmer  to  do  the  work  of  many  men  without  extra 
effort  on  his  part;  and  the  engineer  designed  the  machinery. 

But  to  get  the  most  good  out  of  farm  machinery  it  must 
be  selected,  used,  and  cared  for  intelligently.  Here  the  ag- 
cultural  engineer  has  been  able  to  help  the  farmer  by  sug- 
gesting ways  and  means  for  getting  the  highest  possible  re- 
turns in  efficiency  from  all  the  various  kinds  of  machines  used 
on  the  modem  farm  in  bam,  in  field,  and  in  the  home. 

Clearing  cut-over  land  and  draining  fields  are  other  Im- 
portant steps  in  farm  development.  In  these  also  the  agri- 
cultural engineer  has  been  useful.  He  found  a way  to  re- 
move stumps  more  easily  and  cheaply  by  combining  dynamite 
with  machinery;  and  he  devised  a method  to  use  tile  for 
drainage  instead  of  large,  wasteful  ditches. 

Not  only  this,  but  when  it  was  found  that  cess  pools  often 
polluted  the  farm  water  supply,  the  engineer  straightway  pro- 
duced a septic  tank  to  remedy  the  dangerous  evil.  And  when 
the  farmer  complained  that  ordinary  plows  refused  to  scour 
in  marsh  soils,  the  engineer  built  him  a new  plow  that  worked. 

Because  the  farm  engineer  has  taken  a hand  mral  life  is 
better,  homes  are  brighter,  crops  are  larger,  work  in  the  field, 
in  the  bam  and  in  the  home  has  been  lightened,  and  a lot  of 
the  dmdgery  of  farm  life  has  been  removed. 


New  Farm  Facts 


39 


Are  Concrete  Tile  Durable? 

Six  counties  have  been  covered  by  G.  R.  B.  Elliott  (Agricultural 
Engineering)  in  investigating  the  efficiency  of  concrete  tile  as  com- 
pared with  other  types  now  in  use. 

In  soils  free  from  acid,  well-made  concrete  tile  show  little  or  no 
disintegration,  but  where  the  tile  is  laid  in  peat  soils  quite  marked 
disintegration  occurred.  The  action  appears  to  be  one  between  the 
soil  acids  and  the  cement  so  that  the  tile  gradually  dissolves  and 
crumbles. 

Inasmuch  as  the  farmers  of  the  state  are  directly  interested  in  pur- 
chasing tile  which  will  render  efficient  service,  the  following  specifica- 
tions have  been  prepared  and  accepted  for  use*  by  concrete  tile  manu- 
facturers: 

1.  Mixture  2Y2  to  1 or  richer  (by  weight). 

2.  Controlled  vapor  for  curing. 

3.  Washed  sharp  aggregate  (ground  stone  and  sand). 

4.  Dense  enough  to  prevent  the  absorption  from  exceeding  7 per  cent. 

5.  If  the  tile  walls  are  of  standard  thickness,  sell  them  only  when 

they  are  to  be  laid  in  soils  free  from  organic  acids. 

6.  In  acid  soils  (especially  peat)  make  tile  walls  of  extra  thickness 

and  density. 

7.  Specialize  in  the  larger  sizes. 

While  these  specifications  handicap  the  concrete  tile  manufacturer 
where  tile  are  laid  in  acid  soils  which  require  tile  walls  of  such  thick- 
ness that  the  cost  can  not  compete  with  the  clay  tile,  no  handicap  is 
placed  upoil  the  large  tile  12  or  more  inches  in  diameter.  Large  tile 
need  the  required  thickness  for  support,  whether  the  material  is  clay 
or  concrete.  The  large  tile  in  addition  is  not  so  susceptible  to  damage 
because  of  the  amount  of  surface  water  low  in  acid  content  which  regu- 
larly flows  through  it. 

Drainage  Settles  Peat  Marshes 

In  the  practical  work  on  draining  the  University  marsh,  valuable 
information  has  been  acquired  concerning  the  settling  of  the  peat  de- 
posits. Where  tiling  has  been  done,  E.  R.  Jones  (Agricultural  Engi- 
neering) and  Mr.  Elliott  have  found  that  this  compacting  is  limited 
in  nearly  all  cases  to  the  peat  above  the  tile.  Only  where  the  water 
table  falls  below  the  tile  was  settling  found  in  the  grade  line  of  the 
tile.  These  facts  seem  to  indicate  that  the  decomposition  of  the  peat — 
which  requires  oxygen — goes  on  fastest  in  that  portion  of  the  soil 
which  is  well  drained.  Records  also  indicate  that  while  the  marsh  has 
settled  9^  inches  in  six  years,  half  of  that  settling  occurred  during  the 
first  two  years  of  drainage. 

The  matter  of  depth  in  laying  tile  must,  therefore,  be  carefully  con- 
sidered in  marsh  drainage.  Allowance  must  also  be  made  for  a certain 


40 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


amount  of  settling  in  the  peat  after  the  water  has  been  drained  and  the 
processes  of  decomposition  are  hastened. 

Sharpen  the  Sickle  to  Save  the  Horse 

Draft  tests  were  made  on  a used  mower  by  Mr.  Duffee  with  the  cutter 
bar  both  in  good  condition  and  in  poor  condition.  When  the  knife  was 
dull  and  the  bar  in  poor  adjustment  the  draft  was  increased  from  30  per 
cent  to  35  per  cent.  Very,  little  was  gained  by  sharpening  the  knife 
and  leaving  the  bar  in  poor  adjustment.  This  experiment  shows  the 
advantage  of  a sharp  knife  and  a properly  adjusted  cutting  bar  if  the 
mowing  season  is  to  be  completed  with  the  least  possible  draft  on  the 
horses. 

Testing  War-Salvaged  Explosives  for  Land  Clearing 

Through  the  use  of  T N T,  land  clearing  has  been  cheapened  for 
the  farmers  of  upper  Wisconsin  at  an  average  rate  of  about  seven 
cents  for  each  pound  of  explosive  used.  Investigations  begun  by 
John  Swenehart  (Agricultural  Engineering)  in  1919  have  been  con- 
tinued. In  addition  to  the  work  of  cartridging  the  TNT,  the  prob- 
lems of  cheap,  efficient  distribution  have  been  solved  and  the  way 
paved  for  more  extensive  use  of  all  land  clearing  explosives. 

The  study  of  Grade  II  T N T has  been  continued.  Winter  tests 
made  under  cold  temperatures  with  dry  TNT  and  with  moist  mate- 
rials proved  that  freezing  temperatures  have  no  effect  on  either  detona- 
tion or  strength.  T T containing  from  5 to  10  per  cent  of  water 
when  frozen  showed  no  different  detonation  than  when  the  material 
exploded  was  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

Grade  III  T N T was  further  tested  to  determine  the  field  methods 
necessary  to  its  use.  Experiments  showed  that  it  is  less  sensitive  than 
either  Grade  I or  Grade  II  so  that  more  careful  priming  is  required  if 
best  results  are  to  be  obtained.  Even  with  No.  8 caps  the  priming 
needs  to  be  well  done  to  insure  success.  It  is  better  to  detonate  the 
TNT  with  a primed  dynamite  cartridge.  While  Grade  III  is  more 
easily  packed  in  shells  and  much  less  free  running  it  has  the  disad- 
vantage of  being  more  readily  absorbed  through  the  skin  than  either 
of  the  other  grades. 

Tests  were  made  with  other  salvaged  war  explosives  such  as  grenade 
powder,  black  army  blasting  powder,  and  nitro  starch.  With  grenade 
powder  a small  percentage  of  moisture  was  found  to  interfere  with 
detonation.  As  the  material  from  both  the  Sparta  and  Charleston  maga- 
zines was  found  to  contain  too  much  moisture,  its  use  for  land  clear- 
ing purposes  in  its  present  condition  does  not  seem  warranted.  Black 
blasting  powder  was  also  found  to  be  too  insensitive  and  affected  by 
moisture. 


New  Farm  Facts 


41 


iiMiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiMitniiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiuiiniiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiMiiiiiiiinMiiiMiMiiiiiMiiiiiiiiMiiniuiiiiiiiimiiniiitini 

'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiMinituiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiii 

SUCCESSFUL  FARMER  MUST  CONTROL  INSECT  PESTS 

Only  when  we  appreciate  that  possibly  four-fifths  of  the 
whole  animal  kingdom  consists  of  insects,  and  realize  that 
almost  everything  that  man  uses  and  needs  is  the  natural 
food  of  one  or  more  species  of  insects,  do  we  begin  to  see 
the  continual  struggle  for  supremacy  that  is  going  on  between 
man  and  insects.  If  insects  were  uncontrolled  their  depre- 
dations would  soon  drive  the  human  race  from  existence  just 
as  in  history  they  have  driven  man  from  certain  regions  by 
gaining  the  “upper  hand.” 

What  does  it  profit  the  farmer  when  he  tills  the  soil  well, 
plants  the  best  of  seed  and  tends  the  plots  with  the  greatest 
of  care,  if  the  cutworms  come  at  night  and  the  grasshoppers 
by  day  to  cut  down  and  to  eat  up  the  crop  before  the  har- 
vest? The  entomologist  must  then  assure  the  grower  that 
the  use  of  poison  baits  or  some  other  measure  will  spare  him 
to  a large  extent  from  further  losses  from  the  pest. 

As  every  farmer  knows,  many  insect  pests  are  ready  to 
attack  the  seed  as  soon  as  it  is  sowed.  Others  feed  on  the 
tiny  plants  as  soon  as  they  sprout,  and  myriads  of  chewing 
and  sucking  insects  take  their  food  from  the  growing  plants 
and  often  seriously  injure  or  destroy  them  before  they  are 
fully  matured. 

Other  insects  injure  farm  animals,  and  carry  such  cattle  dis- 
eases as  cattle  fever,  and  such  human  ailments  as  typhoid 
fever  and  malaria.  Likewise  the  distribution  of  bacterial  and 
fungus  diseases  is  caused  to  a large  extent  by  insects. 

Millions  of  dollars  are  saved  each  year  through  safeguards 
recommended  by  the  entomologist.  Occasionally  he  is  able  to 
devote  his  time  to  the  study  of  beneficial  insects,  for  the  honey 
bee,  the  silk  worm  and  other  insects  of  great  benefit  to  man 
are  within  the  scope  of  economic  entomology. 

As  time  goes  on  and  the  plants  of  different  continents  are 
distributed,  together  with  their  insect  enemies,  throughout  the 
world,  necessity  for  further  studies  and  more  knowledge  of 
insect  friends  and  enemies  increases  the  demand  for  the  serv- 
ices of  the  economic  entomologist.  As  wild  plants  are  culti- 
vated and  developed  larger  and  more  succulen*-,  inset  ts  which 
feed  on  them  find  it  easier  to  develop  and  to  increase.  The 
result  is  a broadened  field  of  service  for  tho  insect  specialist. 


I mil I I mil 


42 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Bee  Culture  AcgtriRiNG  New  Iliportaxce 


About  8,000  persons  in  Wisconsin  keep  bees.  Through  the  efforts  of 
the  economic  entomology  department,  working  in  cooperation  with  the 
state  and  local  organizations,  more  interest  has  been  aroused  in  the 
matter  of  apiculture  within  the  last  two  or  three  years  than  ever  before. 

The  most  serious  drawback  to 
the  development  of  this  industry 
is  the  widespread  distribution  of 
the  various  brood  diseases  that 
have  now  gained  a strong  foot- 
hold in  the  state.  Bee  diseases 
on  the  one  hand  and  winter  losses 
on  the  other,  have  actually  caused 
a decrease  of  from  30  per  cent  to 
50  per  cent  of  all  colonies  in  the 
state  between  the  years  1900  and 
1918.  Shortly  prior  to  1918  in- 
terest in  apiculture  had  fallen  to 
the  lowest  ebb  in  the  state,  and 
it  was  no  uncommon  sight  to  see 
hundreds  of  empty  hives  stand- 
ing where  prosperous  and  pro- 
ductive apiaries  had  once  been. 

Through  better  inspection  laws 
and  educational  work  this  situa- 
tion is  being  slowly  remedied. 

American  foul  brood  is  the  most 
destructive  disease;  European 
foul  brood  and  sac  brood  do  not 
occur  in  a virulent  form  over  all 
sections  of  the  state,  and  there 
is  apparently  a direct  relation  of 
climate  and  nectar  secretion  in 
connection  with  both  of  these 
diseases.  Sac  brood  was  more 
widespread  during  last  year  than 

for  several  years  previous.  The  first  two  of  these  diseases  are  caused 
by  bacteria;  the  third  by  a filterable  virus.  Since  these  diseases 
are  highly  communicable,  any  mode  of  control  demands  the  complete  re- 
moval of  all  diseased  material,  and  thorough  disinfection  of  hives  and 
equipment.  The  disease  is  readily  spread  by  exposure  of  diseased 
combs  or  honey  to  robber  bees. 


FIG.  11.— BRUSHING  FOR  FOUL  BROOD 

The  bees  are  brushed  from  one  hive  to 
another  to  provide  clean  quarters  and  fu- 
ture freedom  from  foul  brood. 


Cause  of  Winter  Losses  With  Bees 

The  annual  winter  loss  of  bees  in  Wisconsin  ranges  from  10  to  20  per 
cent,  some  years  running  much  higher.  The  main  cause  is  poor  stores 


New  Farm  Facts 


43 


that  contain  foreign  substances  such  as  gums  or  dextrins  which  can- 
not be  digested  by  the  bees.  The  honey  bee  can  digest  only  certain 
foods,  such  as  invert  sugars,  dextrose,  and  levulose.  In  order  to  rid 
itself  of  fecal  matter,  the  bee  must  fly.  If  the  winter  stores  of  hone3»’ 
are  of  purest  quality  there  is  little  indigestible  material,  and  the  bees 
can  remain  confined  for  six  months  without  difficulty.  If  the  indigest- 
ible material  is  abundant  however  the  intestines  become  filled  to  the 
point  where  the  bees  suffer  from  so-called  dysentery,  fly  out  in  the 
cellar,  and  are  lost.  In  one  man’s  cellar  last  year,  where  160  colonies 
were  wintered,  between  seven  and  eight  bushels  of  dead  bees  were 
removed  in  the  spring. 

These  losses  can  be  prevented  in  large  measure  by  making  sure  that 
the  quality  of  stores  is  of  high  grade. 

Temperature  is  also  a most  important  factor.  Bees  do  not  hibernate 
but  feed  and  remain  active  during  the  winter  months.  If  the  tempera- 
ture falls  below  57°  F.  in  the  hive,  the  bees  cluster  in  a loose  mass  or 
shell.  In  the  cluster  there  is  a continuous  interchange  or  movement 
of  the  bees  from  the  outer  to  the  inner  part  of  the  cluster.  When  the 
bees  on  the  outside  of  the  cluster  get  cold,  they  make  their  way  to  the 
inside  and  warm  bees  take  their  places.  A temperature  of  57°  F.  Is 
maintained  on  the  outside  of  the  shell  by  the  muscular  movements  of 
the  bees.  If  the  bees  are  obliged  to  exert  themselves  to  maintain  the 
temperature  at  57°,  more  honey  must  be  used  and  the  accumulation  of 
feces  is  greatly  increased. 

To  winter  bees  successfully,  they  must  be  protected,  either  packed 
out-of-doors  or  wintered  in  the  cellar,  so  that  the  temperature  can  be 
maintained  at  the  proper  point  without  excessive  exertion  on  the  part 
of  the  bees  to  keep  the  temperature  even. 

The  best  results  secured  in  our  experiments  indicate  a temperature 
of  50°  F.  as  most  satisfactory.  A slight  variation  above  or  below  this 
for  a brief  period  of  time  has  no  material  effect  if  the  bees  are  on  a 
good  quality  of  stores.  The  humidity  in  the  cellar  should  never  be 
greater  than  72°  F.  Under  these  conditions  no  moisture  collects  in  the 
hives,  and  little  or  no  mildew  forms  on  the  combs.  When  it  is  recog- 
nized that  bees  give  off  about  a gallon  of  moisture  for  every  gallon  of 
honey  consumed,  it  is  important  that  conditions  should  not  favor  con- 
densation of  moisture. 

Establishing  or  Restocking  Apiaries  by  Means  of  Package  Bees 

The  rapid  extension  of  the  bee  industry  in  many  portions  of  the 
country  in  the  last  few  years  has  led  to  a great  demand  for  package 
bees.  The  increased  certainty  of  freedom  from  disease  and  the  more 
rapid  progress  in  establishing  or  building  up  an  apiary  through  this 
medium  have  led  to  a rapid  expansion  of  this  Industry.  Owing  to  a 
considerable  number  of  complaints  received  from  bee  keepers,  studies 
have  been  made  upon  the  use  of  this  method.  Package  bees  were 


44 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


shipped  by  parcel  post  or  express  from  southern  Texas,  the  farthest 
point  from  Madison  where  it  was  possible  to  secure  package  bees. 
Parcel  post  shipments  arrived  in  good  condition,  six  days  in  transit, 
and  were  put  in  hives  on  full  sheets  of  foundation.  Express  ship- 
ments arrived  in  much  poorer  condition,  due  in  the  main  to  insufficient 
stores  for  the  journey.  Both  shipments  were  fed  sugar  syrup  until 
sufficient  nectar  could  be  secured  from  spring  bloom.  Twenty-four 
colonies  averaged  51  pounds  of  surplus  honey  during  the  season,  and 
some  colonies  produced  150  pounds. 


CLcomparahve  sMdy  of  f/ie  ///sfot'y  0/  f-fe  Pea Afof/? /9/^-/f^^Sfv'yeen3aj:Ms. 


FIG.  12.— PEA  MOTH  HISTORY  THE  .SAME  FOR  TWO  TEAiaS 

For  two  years  the  pea  moths  appeared  in  greatest  numbers  about  July  18-20;  they 
laid  their  eggs  between  July  19  and  20;  the  eggs  hatched  about  July  27  and  28;  and 
the  full  grown  larvae  had  fed  on  the  pea  crop  and  began  coming  from  the  pods  in 
greatest  numbers  between  August  13  and  16. 

F^a  Moth  Iawt;stigations 

Damage  from  the  pea  moth  to  the  pea  crop  which  is  one  of  increasing 
importance  in  Wisconsin  has  been  more  marked  in  the  northeastern 
section  during  1920.  C.  L.  Fluke  (Economic  Entomology)  has  con- 
tinued the  study  upon  the  life  history  and  habits  of  the  pea  moth,  as 
well  as  investigation  of  control  measures  that  were  suggested  from 
the  studies  of  the  previous  year.  This  season’s  work  checks  that  of  a 
• year  ago  in  showing  that  the  pea  moth  does  not  begin  its  activity  until 


New  Farm  Facts 


45 


the  middle  of  July.  If  it  were  possible  to  secure  a variety  of  peas 
that  would  mature  before  that  date,  it  would  be  the  simplest  way  of 
overcoming  the  ravages  of  the  moth. 

The  first  appearance  of  the  moths  in  the  field  occurred  on  July  12, 
the  first  eggs  hatching  on  July  23,  with  a maximum  number  appearing 
between  July  27  and  August  2.  Larvae  began  to  emerge  from  the  pea 
pods  on  August  6 and  continued  until  August  29. 

No  plants  other  than  the  field  and  garden  peas  have  been  positively 
identified  as  food  for  the  pea  moth.  On  a species  of  wild  vetch  found 
along  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan,  pods  were  found  infested  with  a 
worm  similar  to  the  pea  moth,  but  until  the  adult  is  reared  from  such 
larvae,  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  absolutely  whether  it  is  the  same 
species  that  affects  the  pea  plant. 

The  methods  of  control  which  were  tried  this  last  year  were;  early 
planting,  planting  of  early  maturing  varieties,  resistance  and  suscepti- 
bility of  certain  varieties,  and  crop  rotation. 

The  results  last  year  indicated  that  peas  planted  late  were  infested 
at  an  increasing  rate  of  about  1 per  cent  more  for  every  day  delayed  in 
planting.  With  this  in  mind  a number  of  farmers  cooperated  with  Mr. 
Fluke  this  year  in  planting  peas  at  designated  dates.  The  results 
were  not  consistent,  however,  in  that  some  of  the  plots  planted  the 
earliest  were  more  heavily  infested  than  those  sown  at  a later  date. 

Trials  of  the  early  maturing  varieties  are  dependent  so  much  upon 
the  course  of  the  seasons  that  little  benefit  can  probably  be  derived 
from  the  selection  of  any  early  maturing  variety,  especially  when 
grown  for  the  dried  product. 

A rotation  of  crops  seems  to  offer  more  hope  in  checking  the  ravages 
of  the  moth  than  any  other  method  yet  suggested.  The  results  of  this 
season’s  work  indicate  that  plots  planted  to  peas  this  year  which  were 
on,  or  quite  near  1919  plots,  were  more  highly  infested  than  where 
planted  on  entirely  new  ground  at  a distance  of  several  hundred  feet 
from  old  fields. 

The  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind  and  the  location  of  these  fields 
with  respect  to  it  seems  to  play  a part  in  the  presence  of  moths  in  the 
field. 

A plot  of  ground  at  least  one  acre  in  extent,  which  can  be  cared  for 
by  some  station  member,  is  necessary  before  further  progress  can  be 
made. 


Inskc’t  Pkst.s  Abound  in  1920 

Insect  pests  levy  a heavy  annual  tax  on  farm  crops  and  the  season 
of  1920  was  no  exception  to  the  general  rule. 

Grasshoppers.  This  insect,  which  causes  more  or  less  damage  each 
year,  was  unusually  harmful  in  several  counties  in  the  state  in  1920. 
Slight  damage  was  reported  in  twelve  counties,  but  in  four — Door, 
Florence,  Shawano  and  Taylor — the  infestation  seriously  threatened 
crop  production.  Mr.  Fluke  (Economic  Entomology)  reports  that  the 


46 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


damage  in  Door  county  would  easily  reach  $100,000.  In  many  in- 
stances, farmers  who  were  accustomed  to  harvest  40  loads  of  hay  or 
mor.e,  cut  only  three  or  four  on  their  infested  fields.  After  the  grass- 
hoppers had  destroyed  thei  pasture  and  hay  fields,  they  often  invaded 
rye,  wheat,  and  oat  fields.  One  field  of  peas  was  completely  stripped  of 
foliage. 

One  great  diflBculty  involved  in  combating  this  pest  is  the  fact  that 
in  Door  County  particularly,  much  land  is  owned  by  non-residents,  who 
of  course  are  unable  to  make  any  attempt  to  keep  down  these  pests. 
Grasshoppers  produced  upon 
such  lands  eat  off  the  crops  and 
then  move  on  to  adjoining  farm 
lands.  The  use  of  the  poisoned 
bait  mash  is  an  effective  means 
of  controlling  this  pest,  but  re- 
quires concerted  action  on  the 
part  of  the  infested  community. 

Army  Worms.  Heavy  infesta- 
tions of  the  army  worm  were  re- 
ported from  Barron,  Columbia, 

Dodge,  Douglas,  Ashland,  Buf- 
falo, Winnebago,  Green,  and  the 
southern  part  of  Door  County. 

Wherever  poisoned  bait  was  ap- 
plied for  this  pest,  the  damage 
was  greatly  lessened,  but  here 
again,  as  with  grasshoppers,  con- 
certed action  and  organization 
among  the  farmers  will  be  neces- 
sary before  adequate  protection 
can  be  secured. 

Hessian  Fly.  After  an  absence 
of  many  years,  the  Hessian  fly 
again  made  an  appearance  in  the 
state.  This  last  season  it  was  found  in  Walworth  and  Kenosha  Coun- 
ties, due  in  all  probability  to  the  rapid  increase  in  acreage  of  wheat 
which  has  come  about  within  the  last  few  years. 

Pea  Aphis.  This  insect  is  almost  as  serious  a pest  as  the  moth. 
It  is  more  widespread  in  its  activities  and  while  it  does  not  occur  in 
abundance  every  year,  occasionally  it  causes  losses  of  thousands  of 
dollars.  Pea-growers  in  practically  every  section  of  the  state  experi- 
enced considerable  damage  during  the  past  season;  some  fields  suf- 
fered a loss  of  from  5 per  cent  to  50  per  cent  of  the  crop.  No  system 
of  aphis  control  suitable  for  Wisconsin  conditions  has  been  found. 


FIG.  13.— EFFECT  OF  PEA  APHIS  UPON 
THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  FRUIT 


The  aphis  sucks  the  vitality  from  the 
growing  pod,  leaving  it  undersized,  mal- 
formed and  containing  small  peas.  Com- 
pare with  normal  pod  at  right.  (Slightly 
enlargedl) 


New  Farm  Facts 


47 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiitiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiumii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiimimiimiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiimiiiiiiiiMiiiiiimiiiiiniiiiiiMiiiimi> 

MODERN  AGRICrULTXTRE  IS  MUCH  COMPLICATED 

Country  life  must  be  kept  wholesome  and  pure  and  country 
living  profitable  and  enjoyable  if  we  are  to  “feed  and  clothe 
the  hungry  nations  and  to  supply  the  city  with  fresh  blood, 
clean  bodies  and  clear  brains  that  can  endure  the  terrific 
strain  of  modem  life.” 

We  need,  now  as  much  as  ever,  men  reared  in  the  open 
country,  who,  as  in  the  past,  will  be  “the  strength  of  the 
nation  in  time  of  war  and  its  guiding  and  controlling  spirit 
in  time  of  peace.” 

No  longer  is  the  farmer  a man  apart  from  the  outside 
world.  Originally  the  sale  of  farm  products  depended  upon 
the  local  demand,  but  today  the  farmer’s  market  is  swayed  by 
economic  conditions  of  the  entire  world.  Scarcity  of  food  in 
Europe,  and  dearth  of  raw  materials  may  be  evident  but  un- 
less the  European  has  the  ability  to  purchase  and  pay, 
American  products  will  glut  an  already  overburdened  market. 

It  is  this  necessity  for  an  understanding  of  world  conditions 
which  demands  the  application  of  economics  to  farm  life. 

Whether  marketing  his  product,  managing  his  farm,  hiring 
labor,  treating  with  a tenant  or  with  his  banker,  or  promoting 
a community  club,  the  country  man  has  need  of  the  economics 
of  agriculture.  The  forming  of  cheese  or  butter  factories, 
elevator  companies,  live  stock  marketing  associations,  and 
other  farm  organizations  call  for  a working  knowledge  of 
economic  principles.  Failure  of  cooperation  is  often  due  to 
a lack  of  understanding  of  fundamental  economic  principles. 


Cost  of  Producing  Milk 

In  order  to  determine  the  cost  of  producing  milk,  how  common  farm 
practices  affect  the  cost  of  production,  and  the  relation  between  costs 
and  prices,  farmers  in  selected,  typical  areas  have  been  reporting 
monthly  observations  on  their  feeding  and  labor  costs  to  B.  H.  Hib- 
bard and  S.  W.  Mendum  (Agricultural  Economics). 

Feed  and  labor  are  the  main  items  in  the  cost  of  producing  milk. 
Together  they  amount  to  more  than  75  per  cent  of  the  total  cost,  as 
reported  by  several  studies  completed  in  other  states.  It  is  apparent, 
however,  that  only  the  most  skillful  dairymen  with  high  producing  dairy 
cows  can  get  market  prices  for  their  feeds,  and  as  modest  a wage  as 
40  cents  an  hour  for  their  labor,  in  producing  milk  at  prices  received 
during  1919-1920.  This  is  assuming  that  sales  of’surplus  stock  and  the 
value  of  the  manure  offset  the  other  items  of  cost. 


48 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


One  of  the  chief  factors  influencing  the  cost  is  the  rate  of  production 
of  the  cows.  Although  the  cost,  of  keeping  a ten  thousand  pound  cow 
is  over  50  per  cent  mor^  than  the  cost  of  keeping  a four  thousand  pound 
cow,  milk  from  the  high  producer  costs  less  than  half  as  much  a hun- 
dred pounds  as  that  from  the  low  producer. 

The  time  of  year  when  milk  is  produced  affects  its  cost  and  par- 
ticularly the  price  received.  Many  farmers  failed  to  get  as  much  as 
$2.00  a hundred  for  milk  during  the  summer  in  the  months  of  pasture 
and  full  flush  production,  though  in  the  winter  time  the  price  was 
above  $3.00.  One  dairyman  producing  market  milk  averaged  $3.01  for 
3.57  per  cent  test  milk,  though  only  in  four  months  of  the  twelve  was 
the  price  above  $3.00,  while  in  one  month  it  fell  to  $2.37. 

Six  farmers  in  Sheboygan  County  have  complete  scores  for  twelve 
consecutive  months.  On  these  six  farms,  89  cows  averaged  9,900  pounds 
each  for  the  year;  one  herd  averaged  7,700  pounds,  while  two  made 
12,000  pounds  for  each  cow  kept.  Only  one-third  of  the  number  of 
cows  were  pure  bred.  These  six  farmers  fed  their  89  cows  the  esti- 
mated equivalent  of  three  hundred  tons  of  grain,  or  about  73  pounds  of 
grain  for  each  100  pounds  of  milk.  Pasture  was  estimated  at  22  per 
cent  of  the  feed  consumed,  with  a range  from  3.3  per  cent  to  42  per 
cent.  While  the  total  outlay  for  pasture  is  very  much  less  than  for  the 
amount  of  feed  which  it  replaces,  farmers  who  rely  on  the  low  cost  of 
pasture  to  make  ends  meet  in  milk  production  get  low  prices  for  milk 
partly  as  cause  and  partly  as  effect.  The  amount  of  labor  employed 
in  producing  milk  on  these  six  farms  varied  from  1.2  hours  to  2.93 
hours  for  each  100  pounds.  At  $60  a ton  for  grain  or  its  equivalent, 
and  40  cents  an  hour  for  labor,  the  average  cost  of  milk  on  these  farms 
was  $2.93  a hundred  pounds,  the  range  being  from  $2.40  to  $3.27.  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  six  farms  are  far  above  the  average 
in  rate  of  production.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  cost  of  milk  in- 
creases as  the  rate  of  production  decreases  and  all  facts  point  toward  the 
advantage  of  high  producing  cows. 

Farm  Tenancy  Leads  to  Ownership 

Thus  far  farm  tenancy  in  the  state  has  been  a stepping  stone  to  own- 
ership, although  during  recent  years  ownership  is  delayed  to  a later 
period  in  a man’s  life,  according  to  survey  of  farm  tenancy  by  Mr. 
Hibbard  and  J.  D.  Black  (Agricultural  Economics).  The  survey  has 
brought  out  the  interesting  fact  concerning  credit  that  in  the  first  pur- 
chase of  land  by  the  men  interviewed  it  was  found  that  five-sixths  of 
the  money  required  was  furnished  by  relatives  or  by  retired  farmers 
of  the  neighborhood.  While  this  relieves  the  strain  on  the  local  banks 
and  other  credit  institutions,  if  the  local  money  in  a community  can 
take  care  of  the  young  farmers  to  such  an  extent  without  organization, 
far  more  effective  re.sults  could  be  accomplished  through  organization  of 
effort. 


New  Farm  Facts 


49 


Are  Peas  Canned  at  a Profit? 

Wisconsin  farmers  grow  more  than  half  of  the  peas  canned  each  year 
in  the  United  States.  Naturally  they  are  much  interested  in  securing 
the  best  possible  returns  for  their  crop.  Facts  gathered  from  more 
than  a quarter  of  the  pea  canning  factories  of  the  state  in  1919  by 
T.  Macklin  (Agricultural  Economics)  indicate  that  while  canning  is  an 
expensive  process;  nevertheless,  consumers  are  so  eager  for  peas  that 
good  profits  are  made  in  spite  of  high  costs.  In  one  cooperative  fac- 
tory which  was  in  operation  during  1919,  profits  show  a considerable 
increase  over  the  price  of  raw  peas. 

The  selling  prices  of  30,138,336  cans  of  No.  2 size  averaged  11.53 
cents,  an  equivalent  of  $2.77  a case  of  24  cans.  A complete  analysis 
of  the  various  elements  of  cost  involved  in  canning  this  immense  vol- 
ume of  canned  peas  indicates  that  the  factories  paid  for  making  each 
can  of  peas  an  average  price  of  3.04  cents  for  green  peas,  3.22  cents  for 
the  can  and  boxing,  3.95  cents  for  all  other  necessary  expenses,  and 
had  left  out  of  their  selling  price  1.32  cents  for  profit.  This  profit 
represents  the  total  before  federal  and  state  income  taxes  are  deducted. 
In  other  words,  the  cost  of  raw  peas  amounted  to  26.4  per  cent;  cans 
represented  22.7  per  cent,  boxes  5.2  per  cent,  all  other  expenses  34.2 
per  cent,  and  profit,  before  deduction  of  income  taxes,  11.5  per  cent, 
of  the  factory  selling  price  of  the  finished  product.  It  should  be  dis- 
tinctly understood  that  11.5  per  cent  is  not  the  return  on  capital  in- 
vested in  the  factory,  but  it  is  the  net  profit  as  based  on  the  sales 
price  of  the  canned  peas. 

How  Federating  Helps  Cooperation 

Wisconsin  farmers  who  want  to  cooperate  may  take  a lesson  from 
their  own  state  in  the  organization  and  efficiency  of  operation  of  the 
Wisconsin  Cheese  Producers’  Federation.  About  120  local  cheese  fac- 
tories contribute  to  the  storage  warehouses  at  Plymouth  and  Spring 
Green,  and  the  organization  handles  14,000,000  pounds  of  cheese  an- 
nually at  a cost  of  1.4  cents  for  every  dollar’s  worth  of  cheese. 

Mr.  Macklin  who  has  completed  an  extensive  survey  of  the  organiza- 
tion as  one  which  represents  Wisconsin  cheese  marketing  possibilities, 
has  shown  that  the  economy  of  operation  of  the  federation  ranks  it  well 
forward  among  the  large  cooperative  concerns  of  the  United  States. 

The  experience  of  the  federation  in  cheese  selling  seems  to  indicate 
clearly  that  it  is  the  first  successful,  large  effort  at  cooperative  market- 
ing in  Wisconsin.  It  may  become  a nucleus  for  further  cooperative 
marketing  of  cheese;  and  if  Wisconsin  farmers  provide  the  business, 
the  federation  can  undoubtedly  maintain  its  rank  among  the  first  iu 
the  country.  Efforts  are  now  under  way  to  establish  a similar  relation 
among  the  Swiss  cheese  producers  of  the  state.  The  fact  that  the 


50 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


manufacture  of  this  foreign  cheese  is  so  centered  makes  the  problem  of 
establishing  cooperative  relations  much  easier  than  if  the  business  were 
less  concentrated. 


FIG.  14.— DISTRIBUTION  OF  FACTORIES  CONTRIBUTING  CHEESE  TO 
FEDERATION 

These  factories  marketed  14,000,000  pounds  of  cheese  through  the  Federation  in  1919. 
The  factory  output  ranged  from  less  than  5,000  poimds  to  more  than  300,000  pounds. 

Farm  Accounts  in  Demand 

The  business  of  farming  is  rapidly  moving  to  a stage  where  accurate 
information  based  on  a record  of  observed  facts  is  practically  a neces- 
sity in  the  control  of  farm  operations  . The  demands  of  the  income 
tax  directed  the  attention  of  farmers  to  the  desirability  of  farm  ac- 
counts. According  to  Mr.  Mendum  farmers  find  the  widest  use  for 
farm  accounting  in  their  efforts  to  place  and  maintain  the  prices  of 


New  Farm  Facts 


51 


farm  products  on  levels  which,  will  pay  the  expenses  of  production  and 
fair  wages  for  labor;  to  make  ends  meet  on  the  farm;  and  to  establish 
a basis  for  adequate  credit 

The  Wisconsin  Farm  Record  Book  has  been  prepared  and  distributed 
to  farmers  in  68  counties.  Two  small  editions  have  been  exhausted, 
but  an  improved  edition  is  now  available  to  farmers  at  50  cents  a copy. 

One  farmer  who  kept  his  records  in  the  manner  suggested  by  the 
Department  of  Agricultural  Economics  as  suitable  for  his  purposes, 
submitted  his  records  at  a public  hearing  of  the  Division  of  Markets 
investigating  the  cost  of  growing  potatoes.  The  excellent  character  of 
the  accounts  kept  for  his  own  information,  and  put  to  public  use  com- 
manded the  respect  of  dealers  and  consumers. 

Live  Stock  Farming  Needs  More  Labor 

Due  to  the  increase  in  live  stock  farming,  40  per  cent  more  labor 
was  needed  on  the  farms  in  1910  than  was  the  case  in  1880.  This  in- 
crease in  demand  has  been  more  rapid  than  the  increase  in  supply. 

Only  one-third  of  the  work  on  Wisconsin  farms  is  done  by  hired  labor 
working  out,  and  by  far  the  best  farm  hands  on  modern  farms  are  the 
native  born  sons  of  neighboring  farmers — men  who  are  working  in 
anticipation  of  future  ownership  of  a farm. 

According  to  H.  C.  Taylor  (Agricultural  Economics)  and  Mr.  Black, 
farm  wages  are  $10.00  a month  higher  in  southwestern  than  in  central 
and  eastern  Wisconsin.  New  methods  of  paying  wages  have  been  de- 
vised and  are  promising  better  relationships  between  the  farmer  and 
his  laborer.  While  a wage  scale  for  winter  and  summer  work  is  used 
in  some  cases,  this  sort  of  pay  does  not  compete  with  a uniform  wage 
scale  applied  to  every  month  in  the  year.  Occasionally  farmers  offer 
straight  bonuses  of  from  $10i  to  $50  if  men  stay  until  the  completion 
of  the  year’s  work.  Where  good  judgment  is  used,  this  has  proved 
to  be  a satisfactory  method  of  keeping  men. 

While  there  have  been  many  reports  to  the  effect  that  labor  is  scarce, 
facts  indicate  that  few  farmers  are  without  the  labor  necessary  to  do 
ordinary  farming.  It  is  no  doubt  true  that  they  would  hire  more  labor 
at  a lower  wage  and  that  wages  were  high  in  proportion  to  the  prices  of 
farm  produce  was  perhaps  true  in  1920. 

Retailing  Food  Supplies 

The  producer  naturally  wants  to  know  how  much  of  the  consumer's 
dollar  is  needed  to  meet  retail  expenses.  A survey  of  the  meat  and 
grocery  retailers  in  a typical  Wisconsin  city  made  by  Mr.  Macklin 
shows  that  over  half  of  the  stores  are  so  small  that  their  costs  of  doing 
business  are  high.  Moreover,  these  small  storekeepers  cannot  serve 
either  producers  or  consumers  efficiently. 

On  an  average,  these  retailers  took  from  15  to  16  cents  of  the  con- 
sumer’s dollar  to  meet  expenses  and  provide  profits  during  1919.  Oper- 


52 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


ating  expenses  required  from  11.7  to  12.3  cents,  leaving  from  2.5  to  4.5 
cents  on  the  dollar  for  retailers’  salaries  and  profits.  The  bulk  of 
these  stores  were  unable  to  make  profits  because  of  their  small  size. 

To  reduce  the  expenses  of  retailers  and  to  provide  a fair  profit  for 
them  necessitates  that  meats  and  groceries  be  handled  by  efficient 
stores  only.  Since  present  inefficiency  is  due  largely  to  small  volume 
of  business,  the  hope  for  less  costly  service  lies  in  the  consolidation  of 
small  stores.  Competition  between  efficieijt  stores  only,  rather  tha.u 
among  inefficient  and  efficient  stores,  would  mean  a system  of  retailing 
requiring  a smaller  share  of  the  consumer’s  dollar.  Not  until  this  is 
done  can  producers  expect  to  get  a larger  share  of  the  consumer’s  dollar 
nor  can  consumers  hope  to  buy  food  supplies  at  more  nearly  producer’s 
prices. 


I I 



, ^ BEST  FARMING  PRACTICES  KEEP  RESOURCES  INTACT 

' ' ^ j 

The  soil  is  our  greatU?',  resource.  It  supports  plant 

and  animal  life  which  in  tuxT  with  food  and 

clothing.  I 

While  the  processes  of  soil  formation  ar J 
on,  the  processes  of  depletion,  erosion,  leachi^^^’  waste 
are  at  the  same  time  lessening  the  value  of  this  ^"|sset. 

As  with  nearly  all  of  our  natural  resources,  man  ha'®  wasted 
more  than  he  has  used.  To  conserve  this  bank  accou^^’ 
to  transmit  it  unimpaired  to  future  generations  is  a < duty 
which  the  human  race  owes  to  posterity.  In  earlier  y 
when  less  was  known  about  our  soils,  wanton  practices 
to  rapid  depletion  or  exhaustion.  Practically  every  virgJ^^ 
area  that  has  been  opened  up  for  settlement  by  man  ha.® 
had  its  pioneer  generation  of  soil-miners.  Then  have  fol- 
lowed those  who  have  appreciated  that  if  future  human  life 
is  to  receive  adequate  support  from  the  soil,  the  tiller  must 
not  only  quit  robbing  the  land  but  must  feed  the  soil  as  he 
feeds  his  flock. 

To  the  “soils  men’’  we  owe  much  of  our  appreciation  of: 
the  value  of  legumes  and  inoculation  in  the  improvement  of 
soils;  of  the  seriousness  of  wasting  nature’s  stores  of  such 
elements  as  phosphorus,  potash,  and  nitrogen;  and  of  the  im- 
portance of  removing,  restoring  or  retaining  water  to  the 
land.  Declining  crop  yields  warn  of  decreasing  prosperity  and 
impairment  of  capital  but  the  soils  chemist  and  specialist 
point  the  way  back  to  rich  soil  resources. 


mm 


New  Farm  Facts 


53 


Green  Manure  for  Soil  Improvement 

That  the  growth  of  green  manuring  crops  has  been  very  beneficial  to 
all  kinds  of  soils,  particularly  the  sandy  types,  has  long  been  known. 
The  question  as  to  whether  or  not  it  is  profitable  to  grow  a legume  one 
year  in  three  or  four  to  plow  under,  has  confronted  the  user  of  green 
manure  crops. 

In  the  recent  trials  made  at  the  Marshfield  Branch  Station  by  A.  R. 
Whitson  and  F.  L.  Musbach  (Soils),  the  land  was  laid  out  for  a four 


FIG.  l.").-GREEN  MANURE  HELPS  SANDY  SOILS 

Corn  yn«l  saybeans  allemated  in  rows  2 feet  apart  reduced  the  yield  of  silage  only 
one-third,  and  increased  other  crop  yields  from  30  to  75  per  cent. 


year  rotation  of  corn,  potatoes,  oats,  and  clover,  one  field  of  each  being 
grown  each  year.  The  chief  difference  between  this  rotation  and  any 
other  is  that  the  corn  is  planted  in  rows  4 feet  apart  with  a green 
manuring  crop  grown  between  the  rows.  The  corn  is  cut  off  for  silage 
and  the  green  manuring  crop  plowed  under,  the  plow  lands  being  laid 
out  across  the  rows  of  corn  and  legumes.  This  method  permits  the 
complete  turning  under  of  the  crop  and  by  the  use  of  a chain  on  the 
nlow  insures  a uniform  distribution  in  the  soil.  No  other  fertilizers 
ave  been  used,  and  although  corn  has  been  reduced  only  one-third 
n yield  all  other  crops  have  been  increased.  The  increase  in  oats  on  a 
our  year  average  was  15  bushels  an  acre  following  serradella,  18 
oushels  following  soybeans,  and  8. .3  bushels  following  sand  vetch.  The 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


increase  in  clover  averaged  nearly  15  per  cent,  and  that  of  potatoes 
5.7  bushels  an  acre. 

The  influence  of  the  green  manuring  crop  is  greater  during  years 
following  seasons  favorable  to  its  growth.  Such  a season  occurred  two 
years  ago  when  an  unusually  good  growth  of  soybeans  and  serradella 


FIG.  16.— CORN  withstands  ACIDITY 

Corn  planted  in  an  acid  solution  grows  quite  well,  while  soybeans  and  cowpeas 
(right)  barely  manage  to  live. 

was  produced.  The  oats  of  the  1920  season  yielded  62  and  64.2  bushels 
an  acre  respectively  from  the  green-manured  land.  A yield  of  36.2 
bushels  was  secured  in  a rotation  of  corn,  oats,  and  clover,  without 
the  green  manure  crop. 

The  good  effect  of  green  manure  will  generally  increase  when  the 
rotation  has  been  in  progress  until  two  or  three  green  manuring  crops 
have  been  added  to  the  soil.  This  method  of  green  manuring  offers 


New  Farm  Facts 


55 


good  possibilities  for  better  use  of  land  when  only  a limited  amount  of 
manure  is  available  and  when  it  is  desirable  to  increase  the  water- 
holding capacity  of  the  soil. 

Acidity  Influences  Inoculation  and  Growth 

Cowpeas  and  soybeans  dropped  off  markedly  in  both  growth  and 
nodule  formation,  according  to  O.  C.  Bryan  (Soils)  and  E.  B.  Fred 
(Agricultural  Bacteriology),  as  soon  as  an  excess  of  either  acid  or 
alkali  appeared.  Corn,  on  the  other  hand,  made  a reasonably  satis- 
factory growth  even  under  acid  conditions  which  were  sufficient  to 
stunt  and  prevent  the  inoculation  of  the  roots  of  both  soybeans  and 
cowpeas. 

Field  experiments  at  the  Marshfield  Branch  Station  by  F.  L.  Mus- 
bach  (Soils)  have  not  only  shown  benefits  in  increased  clover  stands, 
but  in  every  crop  included  in  the  rotation,  and  lime  has  proved  to  be 
the  most  profitable  investment  in  soil  building. 

Sweet  Clover  Uses  Insoluble  Phosphates  and  Potash 

Sweet  clover  abounds  in  many  sections  of  the  state;  and  recent  work 
by  the  soils  department  shows  that  it  has  especially  strong  feeding 
powers  for  the  phosphorus  and  potassium  of  glauconite.  This  knowl- 
edge may  prove  valuable  in  the  use  of  the  inexhaustible  supply  of  in- 
soluble potash  and  phosphate  minerals.  During  the  period  of  its 
growth,  sweet  clover  can  assimilate  large  quantities  of  potassium  and 
phosphorus  from  insoluble  sources.  Whether  it  is  grown  for  hay. 
pasture,  or  green  manure,  these  elements  are  returned  to  the  soil  in  a 
condition  which  makes  them  readily  available  to  all  crops. 

While  further  study  is  required  it  seems  possible  that  sweet  clover 
may  become  of  direct  advantage  in  the  use  of  hitherto  unavailable 
potassium  and  phosphate  minerals. 

Lime  Maintains  Availability  of  Phosphates 

Since  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  is  often  necessary,  definite 
information  about  the  best  methods  of  application  and  the  relations 
and  reactions  of  these  fertilizers  in  the  soil  is  essential. 

The  value  of  having  a good  supply  of  lime  in  the  soil  to  help  keep 
the  phosphates  In  available  form  has  been  further  established  by 
E.  Truog  and  F.  W.  Parker  (Soils).  This  is  directly  related  to  the 
soil  acidity  problem  for  as  the  amount  of  lime  in  the  soil  decreases, 
conditions  permit  the  formation  of  the  less  available  phosphates  of  iron. 
The  plant  then  is  gradually  deprived  of  the  phosphates  needed  for 
growth. 

Laboratory  trials  conducted  with  rape  and  com  showed  that  with  a 
lime  phosphate  combination  the  two  plants  produced  12  grams  and  10.5 
grams  (air  dry  weights)  respectively.  Under  acid  conditions  in  the 


56 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


soil,  which  permitted  the  formation  of  the  insoluble  phosphates,  the 
yield  was  7.0  grams  and  2.0  grams,  showing  that  in  both  cases  the 
addition  of  lime  to  the  soil  greatly  increased  the  availability  of  phos- 
phate to  the  plants. 

Marsh  Soils  Adapted  to  Dairying 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  of  the  marshes  of  Wisconsin  can  be 
farmed  successfully,  but  proper  drainage  is.  necessary.  In  solving  the 
problem,  tile  has  proved  more  successful  than  widely  separated  outlet 
ditches. 

Trials  made  by  the  Soils  department  at  the  Coddington  Branch 
Station  in  1919  with  soybeans  returned  from  2 to  3 tons  of  hay  an 
acre,  showing  that  soybeans  on  raw  peat  land  are  an  excellent  hay 
or  forage  crop.  Early  varieties  of  corn — including  Nos.  7,  12,  and  25 — 
matured  and  yielded  about  40’  bushels  an  acre.  Buckwheat  yielded  10 
bushels,  and  potatoes  125  bushels  an  acre;  oats  and  peas  made  an  ex- 
cellent growth  of  hay. 

Experience  has  shown  that  marsh  lands  are  subject  to  summer  frosts 
to  such  an  extent  that  crops  liable  to  frost  injury  are  uncertain.  Silage 
or  hardy  root  crops  grown  with  small  grains,  however,  make  it  pos- 
sible to  carry  on  successful  dairying  or  other  live  stock  farming  since 
marsh  lands  are  best  suited  to  heavy  forage  crops. 


Do  Cherries  Need  Cross-Pollination? 

Pollination  experiments  to  determine  whether  the  sour  cherry  in 
Wisconsin  is  self,  or  inter-fertile,  or  sterile  were  made  in  Door  County 
orchards  by  R.  H.  Roberts  (Horticulture).  It  was  observed  that 
Richmond  and  Montmorency,  the  two  varieties  studied,  were  very 
strongly  self-fertile  in  1920.  There  were  comparatively  few  insects 
visiting  the  cherry  orchards  at  any  time  and  yet  the  orchards  bore  a 
normal  crop.  From  85  per  cent  to  90  per  cent  of  the  blossoms  were  so 
situated  that  pollen  could  fall  readily  upon  the  pistil  so  that  appar- 
ently the  jarring  of  the  branches  by  the  wind  produced  pollination. 

This  and  other  observations  seem  to  warrant  the  statement  that 
the  set  of  the  cherries  was  more  dependent  upon  other  conditions  than 
upon  lack  of  pollinizing  agents. 

Tests  with  Burbank  plums,  on  the  other  hand,  showed  that  this  fruit 
is  self-sterile,  but  sets  from  the  pollen  of  other  varieties.  Interplanting 
is  necessary  for  this  variety  and  insects  as  pollinizing  agents  are 
needed  to  secure  a set  of  fruit. 

Both  Wealthy  and  McIntosh  apples  proved  to  be  self-sterile,  but  rather 
highly  inter-fertile.  This  may  account  for  the  low  yields  in  orchards 
which  are  composed  of  large  blocks  of  one  or  the  other  variety. 


New  Farm  Facts 


57 


HORTICULTURE  HELPS  IN  ORCHARD,  GARDEN 
AND  HOME 

Fruit  growing  is  almost  as  old  as  civilization  in  America. 
Within  fifty  years  after  Cortez  conquered  the  Aztecs,  the  In- 
dians were  cultivating  peaches,  a fruit  brought  to  America 
by  the  Spaniards.  Since  that  time  horticulture  has  ever,  been 
of  increasing  interest  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  New  World. 
Horticulture  in  one  or  more  of  its.  numerous  phases  attracts 
the  home-maker  whether  man  or  woman,  city  dweller  or 
country  resident. 

The  farmer,  as  well  as  the  city  man,  now  considers  the  im- 
provement of  the  grounds  surrounding  his  home  and  is  con- 
cerned in  establishing  rural  parks  and  in  preserving  places 
of  historic  interest.  Both,  therefore,  turn  to  the  landscape 
gardener  when  perplexing  problems  arise  concerning  public  or 
home  grounds  improvement. 

If  the  city  fruit  gardener  desires  information  about  varieties 
of  strawberries  or  grapes,  or  how  to  prune  his  raspberries  or 
spray  his  apple  tree,  the  horticulturist  is  prepared  to  assist 
him.  The  farmer — whether  growing  fruit  for  home  use  or 
market — frequently  wants  advice  about  such  things  as  the 
best  location  for  his  orchard,  proper  cultural  practices,  and 
fertilization  or  spraying.  The  horticulturist  is  ready  to  help 
him  solve  his  problem. 

Moreover,  nearly  every  farm  home  now  has  a garden;  and 
the'  value  of  the  back  yard  and  vacant  lot  gardens  in  cities 
is  no  longer  in  doubt.  Here  again  the  horticulturist,  with 
his  first-hand  knowledge  about  the  best  methods  for  making 
both  land  and  labor  yield  the  highest  returns,  is  of  service. 

Nor  does  the  horticulturist’s  interest  stop  at  the  so  called 
more  practical  things.  The  housewife  particularly  likes  to 
grow  flowers  but  is  often  disappointed  in  the  results  she  gets 
because  of  failure  to  observe  some  cultural  detail  or  because 
of  plant  pests.  She  may  look  to  the  horticulturist  for  help, 
since  flowers  and  their  culture  are  one  of  his  four  major  in- 
terests. 

Propagation  of  plants,  the  improvement  and  culture  of  po- 
tatoes and  tobacco,  decorative  planting  and  the  growing  of 
vegetables  in-doors  are  other  specialized  phases  of  horticul- 
ture of  interest  to  many.  As  the  number  interested  in  them 
increases,  the  problems  also  increase  and  keep  the  horticul- 
turist busy  trying  to  find  their  solution. 


illlllllllllMIIIIMIIMlilMlillllMlllilllinilllllMIIIIMIIIIIItllllllllllllMlllllllllllilllltllllllMinilllllilllllllllllltlMItlltllllllMllllUillllinilMlIliHilMllllllltlllilMIIIMIMMimnilllllllMMIMIMMIIMMIIIIMIll 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


New  Northern  Grown  Strain  of  Triumph  Potatoes 

The  southern  potato  industry  is  dependent  upon  the  North  for  its 
seed.  Due  to  the  wide  variations  in  conditions  under  which  the  potatoes 
are  grown,  northern-grown  seed,  which  usually  shows  superior  quality 
in  the  North,  often  fails  in  the  South.  One  of  the  reasons  for  this  is 
the  presence  of  mosaic  disease  in  seed  stock,  particularly  in  Triumph, 
the  most  important  variety  in  Wisconsin  grown  for  seed  in  the  South. 

To  determine  some  of  the  factors  influencing  freedom  from  disease, 
vigor,  and  productiveness  in  potatoes,  trials  have  been  made  by  J.  G 


FIG.  17.— SET  OF  FRUIT  MADE  LARGELY  BY  SELF-POLLINATION 

1.  Blossoias  bagged  to  prevent  action  of  -wind  or  insects.  The  bag  prevented  the 
jarring  of  the  branch  and  only  a few  fruits  set.  2.  Left  open  to  insects  and  wind 
the  set  of  fruits  was  normal.  3.  Pollen  bearers  of  blossoms  removed  and  pollen 
used  from  the  same  variety  for  pollination  gave  a satisfactory  set  of  fruit.  4.  Treated 
as  No.  3 but  not  pollinated,  no  fruits  set.  5.  Pollen  bearers  of  blossoms  removed, 
leaving  the  wind  or  insects  to  carry  the  pollen.  The  few  fruits  set  indicate  that  the 
wind  is  not  an  efl3cienb  carrier  for  cherry  pollen. 

Mil  ward  (Horticulture)  cooperating  with  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  the  Spooner  Branch  Station  and  in  the  South. 
With  Rural  New  Yorker,  Green  Mountain,  Triumph,  Irish  Cobbler, 
and  Early  Ohio  the  most  marked  differences  existed  in  Triumph.  Dif- 
ferences varying  from  5 per  cent  to  90  per  cent  of  infection  were  found 
in  the  17  strains  studied. 

A strain  obtained  from  J.  W.  Smith  of  Kent,  Wisconsin,  has  shown 
the  least  infection,  percentage  counts  in  some  cases  running  as  low  as  2 
per  cent  with  the  maximum  about  10  per  cent.  The  value  of  this  seed 
is  evident  when  it  is  considered  that  normally  good  grades  of  Triumph 
seed  show  an  infection  of  from  30  per  cent  to  40  per  cent  and  seed 
showing  15  per  cent  infection  is  considered  satisfactory  in  the  North. 


New  Farm  Facts 


59 


While  the  same  strain  may  show  wide  differences  in  growth  it  is 
worthy  of  note  that  the  Smith  strain  has  proved  uniformly  superior 
in  all  comparative  trials  both  in  the  North  and  South.  Yields  at  the 
Spooner  Station  in  1919  gave  the  new  strain  an  advantage  of  56 
bushels  an  acre  over  the  best  other  strain  and  100  bushels  over  the 
poorest  strain  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  especially  superior  seed  was 
used  in  all  cases. 

About  twenty  growers  of  certified  Triumph  seed  used  the  Smith 
strain  in  1920  with  success.  We  shall  be  able  to  supply  about  50 
growers  for  the  1921  crop.  If  this  apparent  resistance  to  mosaic  is 
maintained,  the  strain  will  doubtless  be  universally  grown  over  the 
entire  state.  Should  it  continue  to  remain  relatively  free  from  infec- 
tion, its  discovery  will  be  of  great  value  not  only  to  growers  of 
Triumph  seed  stock  in  Wisconsin,  but  to  the  southern  producers  of 
early  potatoes  for  the  northern  market. 


Salome  is  Promising  Winter  Apple 

The  Salome,  little  known  among  state  orchardists,  has  proved  itself 
a good  commercial,  winter  apple  for  the  southern,  eastern,  and  western 
bluff  section  of  the  state.  The  tree  comes  into  profitable  bearing  rea- 
sonably early  and  has  produced  heavy  crops  at  the  station,  with  a 
tendency  to  miss  the  “off  year.”  According  to  the  department  of  horti- 
culture, the  fruit  is  of  higher  quality  and  keeps  better  than  the  North- 
western. Its  color  varies  from  low  to  highly  colored,  bright  red 
specimens.  i ' 

A Concrete  Soil  Sterilizer  for  Greenhouses 

The  increased  use  of  sterilized  soils  in  vegetable  forcing  houses  and 
in  laboratories  where  soils  or  plant  diseases  are  being  studied  has  in- 
vited suggestions  for  new  and  simple  large  sterilizers  for  this  purpose. 
A sterilizer  constructed  of  reinforced  concrete  with  a heavy  sheet-iron 
door  hung  on  barn  door  hangers  inside  the  sterilizer  was  built  in  1916 
in  the  horticultural  greenhouse  and  has  given  satisfaction  for  five 
years.  The  iron  door  is  forced  by  the  steam  pressure  against  1%  inch 
cylinder  packing  laid  in  the  concrete  wall  in  such  a way  as  to  make  the 
seams  practically  steam  tight.  The  inside  dimensions  of  the  sterilizer 
illustrated  are  34  x 67  x 72  inches.  It  is  capable  of  sterilizing  about 
one  ton  of  soil  at  a time. 


A New  Wilt  Disease  of  Tobacco 

That  a new  wilt  will  not  injure  Wisconsin  tobacco  is  shown  through 
the  cooperative  work  with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
in  tobacco  investigations. 

The  wilt  is  a new  disease  of  tobacco  first  reported  from  Maryland  in 


60 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


1916  and  since  found  in  Ohio  and  Kentucky.  The  cause  of  this  disease 
was  found  to  be  a Fusarium  closely  related  to  the  Fusarium  which 
causes  potato  wilt.  It  was  found  that  varieties  of  tobacco  differ  mark- 
edly in  their  resistance  to  the  disease — the  Wisconsin  types  being  about 
99  per  cent  resistant  as  compared  with  the  32  per  cent  resistance  for 
White  Burley.  This  fact,  together  with  the  lower  soil  temperatures  in 
the  Wisconsin  districts,  indicates  that  it  will  not  become  a pest  of  any 
consequence  to  the  Wisconsin  tobacco  grower. 


Brown  Root  Rot  of  Tobacco 


A tobacco  disease  causing  serious  losses  to  eastern  tobacco  growers 
has  been  found  recently  in  Wisconsin.  James  Johnson  (Horticulture), 


FIG.  18.— WISCONSIN  TOBACCO  RESISTS  FUSARIUM  WILT 


The  most  common  Wisconsin  variety  Connecticut  Havana  (A)  is  90  per  cent  resist- 
ant while  the  out-of-state  varieties  Little  Dutch  (B)  Maryland  Broadleaf  (C)  and 
White  Burley  (D)  are  often  only  30  per  cent  resistant. 

who  has  been  studying  the  disease,  has  been  unable  to  discover  the 
causal  organism  although  his  studies  have  shown  that  the  disease  is 
doubtless  due  to  a parasite. 

The  disease  has  been  called  the  brown  root  rot  of  tobacco  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  “black  root  rot”  caused  by  the  fungus,  Thielavia 
hasicola.  The  name,  ‘brown  root  rot,  is  suggested  by  the  fact  that 
young  lesions  on  the  roots  and  the  decayed  roots  are  distinctly  brown 
as  contrasted  with  the  jet  black  color  of  roots  infected  with  black  root 
rot. 

The  studies  made  by  Mr.  Johnson  have  shown  that  this  disease  is 
often  found  in  conjunction  with  the  black  root  rot.  As  it  produces 
similar  above-ground  symptoms,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  which  dis- 
ease is  responsible  for  the  stunting  and  wilting  of  the  plants.  More 


* The  work  on  the  brown  root  rot  of  tobacco  was  done  in  cooperation 
with  the  office  of  Tobacco  Investigations,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 


New  Farm  Facts 


61 


«tn  mKiMiiiiUMiHi 

THE  DOCTOR  OF  SICK  CROPS 

Pla-ut  diseases  take  their  annual  toll  of  millions  of  dollars — 
apples  are  scabby,  potatoes  are  rotten,  cherries  shrivel  on  the 
trees,  wheat  and  corn  are  blighted  by  rusts  and  smuts. 

Plant  pathology  deals  with  the  causes  and  remedies  of  plant 
troubles  like  these,  just  as  medical  pathology  deals  with 
human  ills.  The  plant  pathologist  knows  why  a remedy  must 
be  applied  as  well  as  how  and  when  to  do  it;  he  fights  not 
a single  disease  of  a single  plant  but  a veritable  medley  of 
troubles  that  continue  to  eat  into  the  farmer’s  income. 

Some  plant  diseases  are  caused  by  bacteria;  others  by  fungi; 
many  are  helped  in  their  development  either  by  heat  or  cold, 
by  damp  or  dry  weather  or  a combination  of  conditions, 
similar  again  to  human  disease.  Sometimes  the  pathologist 
can  only  tell  the  nature  of  the  trouble  by  examination  of 
hundreds  of  specimens;  at  other  times  the  story  is  told  by  a 
single  plant. 

Control  and  prevention  of  plant  diseases  is  the  object  of 
plant  pathology  and  it  may  be  done  by:  preventing  intro- 

duction of  disease  through  federal  or  state  quarantine  acts, 
as  with  pine  blister  rust  or  potato  wart;  destroying  the  host 
plant  of  the  disease,  as  with  fire  blight  of  apple  trees;  hold-^ 
ing  the  fungus  in  check  by  change  in  farming  methods  as  in 
the  root  rot  of  com  or  seedling  blight  of  wheat;  protecting 
the  susceptible  tissues  as  the  leaves  and  fmit  by  a spray,  such 
as  a bordeaux  mixture  applied  to  prevent  apple  scab;  and 
developing  strains  of  plants  which  will  resist  disease,  as  in  the 
yellows-resistant  cabbage. 

Without  the  plant  pathologist  the  farmer  is  as  helpless  as 
the  man  without  a doctor,  for  the  pathologist  is  constantly  at 
work  through  both  state  and  national  departments  of  agricul- 
ture studying  the  habitat  and  control  of  new  diseases  wher- 
ever they  may  occur.  The  correct  solution  of  plant  disease 
problems  is  at  the  very  foundation  of  agriculture,  for  with 
the  frequent  introduction  of  new  pests  from  foreign  coun- 
tries and  the  multiplication  of  old  ones  through  longer  and 
more  intensive  cropping,  the  disease  problems  tend  each  year 
to  become  more  acute.  The  continued  success  or  failure  with 
many  of  the  staple  crops  depends  upon  the  helpful  coopera- 
tion of  the  trained  plant  pathologist. 


llllinilllllllllllllllllllllllMIIIMIIMMIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIllllllllllllllllllMIIMHIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIMIIimillllMllllllllllllllimmillllllMIIIIIII'llllllimiirilllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


injury  is  observed  when  soil  temperatures  are  relatively  high  as 
compared  with  those  at  which  black  root  rot  develops  most  rapidly. 
Under  field  conditions  it  appears  that  high  soil  temperature  may  be  such 
as  to  reduce  to  a minimum  the  influence  of  black  root  rot,  which 
thrives  at  low  temperatures,  while  the  brown  root  rot  may  continue 
doing  serious  injury. 

Various  other  agricultural  plants  are  also  attacked  by  the  disease. 
Members  of  the  legume  family,  the  potato,  and  the  tomato  are  subject 
to  attack,  but  are  less  susceptible  than  tobacco.  This  may  even  be 
affected  when  grown  on  land  for  the  first  time,  due  perhaps  to  the 
presence  of  the  disease  on  certain  susceptible  plants  preceding  the 
tobacco.  The  heavy  application  of  fertilizers  to  infected  soil  does  not 
lesson  crop  production  during  seasons  favorable  to  the  development  of 
brown  root  rot. 

No  varieties  resistant  to  the  disease  have  been  found,  although  there 
are  some  indications  of  resistant  plants.  Suggested  methods  of  control 
at  present  are:  Avoid  infected  soils;  select  soils  not  having  recently 

produced  crops  susceptible  to  the  disease;  and  establish  a crop  rota- 
tion in  which  host  plants  of  the  brown  root  rot  are  not  included. 

Can  We  Prophesy  Plant  Disease  Outbreaks? 

A large  part  of  the  work  of  the  Plant  Pathology  department  in  the 
last  few  years  has  been  a study  of  the  relation  of  environment  to  plant 
disease.  This  has  been  largely  a study  of  the  influence  of  soil  tempera- 
ture upon  the  development  of  various  plant  diseases.  Where  prac- 
ticable, however,  further  studies  have  been  made  to  show  the  influences 
of  air  temperature  and  soil  temperature,  as  well  as  soil  temperature. 
The  more  exact  phases  of  this  experimental  work  must  be  conducted 
under  glass,  but  the  correlated  field  data  which  is  being  gathered  from 
year  to  year  shows  a striking  similarity  between  the  soil  temperatures 
and  certain  diseases  of  truck  and  cereal  crops.  These  findings  give 
confidence  in  the  value  of  this  type  of  work  not  only  from  the  point  of 
view  of  plant  physiology  and  plant  pathology,  but  also  in  application 
to  farm  practice.  It  is  entirely  possible,  therefore,  that  from  the  diag- 
nosis of  certain  soil  diseases  and  the  relation  of  such  diseases  to  soil 
temperature,  a forecast  as  to  whether  they  are  likely  to  affect  crops  or 
not,  may  be  made  season  by  season.  This  has  been  strikingly  shown 
with  cabbage  yellows  which  thrives  more  luxuriantly  under  higher  soil 
temperature  than  otherwise,  and  in  tobacco  root  rot,  which  does  most 
damage  under  lower  temperature  conditions. 

A thorough  knowledge  of  the  relation  between  environment  and  dis- 
ease distribution  may  also  lead  to  a better  understanding  of  the  rea- 
sons why  some  plant  diseases  occur  in  some  localities  and  not  in  others. 
It  may  lead  to  the  possibility  of  predicting  whether  parasites  may 
prove  serious  or  not  if  introduced  into  new  crop  producing  sections. 
For  instance,  if  certain  threatening  potato  parasites  happen  to  be  in- 
troduced they  may  be  a serious  menace  or  not  depending  upon  their 


New  Farm  Facts 


63 


ability  to  thrive  under  the  ordinary  soil  temperature  conditions  in  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  potato  belt. 

Similarly,  onion  smut  occurs  in  certain  sections  depending  u|)on 
the  temperature  of  the  soil  during  seed  germination.  The  practical  result 
is  that  this  disease  is  widespread  in  the  northern  states,  but  although 
frequently  introduced  is  unable  to  establish  itself  in  the  southern  states. 

Temperatube  Influences  Cabbage  Yellows 

During  the  season  of  1920  cabbage  yellows  was  less  serious  than  in 
some  previous  years,  due  to  the  cooler  temperature.  Data  collected 
last  year  indicate  that  the  yellows  fungus  does  not  develop  in  the  cab- 
bage when  the  soil  temperatures  are  below  61®  F.  or  above  93°  F.  The 
best  temperature  for  the  development  of  the  fungus  was  found  to  range 
from  77°  F.  to  84°  F.,  which  is  somewhat  above  the  optimum  tempera- 
ture for  the  growth  of  the  plant. 

Studies  made  by  L.  R.  Jones  and  staff  (Plant  Pathology)  upon  the 
comparative  resistance  of  Wisconsin  Hollander  cabbage,  indicate  that 
even  the  resistant  strain  in  the  early  seedling  stages  is  relatively  sus- 
ceptible to  the  attacks  of  the  fungus  (Fusarium)  causing  the  yellows. 
With  increasing  age,  however,  the  resistant  character  is  intensified,  as 
was  shown  by  comparisons  of  young  seedlings  in  “cabbage  sick”  soil 
with  those  planted  in  clean  soil  for  30  days  and  then  transplanted  into 
“cabbage  sick”  soil.  This  discovery  strengthens  the  growing  convic- 
tion that  planting  the  cabbage  seedlings  in  soil  known  to  be  entirely 
free  from  this  Fusarium  organism  is  highly  important. 

The  relation  of  the  development  of  yellows  in  cabbage  seedlings  to 
variations  in  soil  moisture  has  also  been  studied.  Where  the  soil  tem- 
perature was  held  constant,  susceptible  varieties  of  seed  were  planted 
in  “cabbage  sick”  soil  in  which  a variation  in  the  soil  moisture  was 
secured  through  the  use  of  Livingston’s  porous  clay  cups.  This  vari- 
able moisture  content  was  held  at  a constant  percentage.  With  a soil 
having  a moisture-holding  capacity  of  31  per  cent  based  on  wet  weight, 
it  was  found  that  the  yellows  developed  most  rapidly  and  destructively 
at  19  per  cent  of  moisture  but  least  at  23  per  cent.  Plants  grown  in 
sterile  soil  produced  the  best  growth  with  19  per  cent  of  moisture. 
It  thus  appears  that  the  degree  of  moisture  most  favorable  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  host  plant  itself  is  also  the  best  for  the  growth  of  the 
disease  organism. 

One  standard  winter  variety,  the  Wisconsin  Hollander,  and  two 
standard  kraut  varieties,  the  Wisconsin  All  Seasons  and  Wisconsin 
Brunswick,  are  now  in  commercial  use.  Efforts  are  now  being  made 
to  get  resistant  strains  for  the  best  early  kraut  variety  as  well  as  a 
standard  early  market  variety.  It  is  hoped  that  these  types  may  be 
perfected  in  their  resistant  qualities  the  same  way  that  the  later 
varieties  have  been  improved.  Such  a development  will  meet  the  major 
needs  of  at  least  the  northern  Mississippi  valley;  and  the  cabbage 
Industry  will  be  placed  upon  a sound  foundation. 


64 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Different  Cabbage  Diseases 

Considerable  confusion  yet  exists  in  the  minds  of  cabbage  growers 
about  the  different  kinds  of  cabbage  diseases.  The  plant  pathology  de- 
partment has  now  shown  the  difference  between  these  diseases,  and 
methods  of  control  have  been  tried  out  with  most  of  them.  So  far,  the 
larger  part  of  the  experiments  have  been  with  cahhage  yellows,  which 
is  often  mistaken  for  bZacTc  rot.  Black  rot  was  widespread  this  last 
season,  especially  in  Outagamie  County.  The  yellows  is  not  a rot  but 
more  of  a wilt  in  which  the  leaves  dry  up  and  become  yellow.  They 
are  finally  shed,  leaving  a rosette  of  withered  and  twisted  small  leaves 
at  the  top  of  the  stem.  The  disease  is  produced  by  the  fungus, 
Fusarium  conglutinans , and  is  transmitted  through  the  soil,  rarely  if 
ever  with  the  seed.  It  is  a hot  weather  disease,  developing  most  de- 
structively in  midsummer,  and  becoming  noticeable  soon  after  the 
plants  are  set  in  the  field.  Cabbage  yellows  can  be  controlled,  so  far 
as  we  now  know,  only  by  the  use  of  a resistant  strain  of  the  variety. 

Black  rot  shows  as  a pronounced  blackening  of  the  veins  of  the 
leaves  or  cabbage  head  and  the  upper  part  of  the  stem.  The  disease 
is  commonly  carried  by  means  of  the  seed  and  first  shows  as  blackened 
threads  on  the  seed  leaves  in  the  seed  bed.  Hot  weather,  however, 
holds  it  in  check  so  that  the  disease  does  not  develop  in  midsummer, 
but  shows  its  most  destructive  appearance  in  the  early  fall.  The  dis- 
ease is  caused  by  the  introduction  of  bacteria  into  the  growing  tissues 
from  the  affected  seed,  or  less  commonly  from  infected  cabbage  refuse. 
It  is  spread  from  plant  to  plant  by  insects  and  enters  the  edges  of  the 
leaves  through  the  water  pores.  The  organisms  work  their  way  down 
into  the  head  of  the  cabbage  through  the  veins.  It  is  possible  to 
control  black  rot  by  putting  the  seed  in  a corrosive  sublimate  solution 
of  1 to  1000  strength.  The  seed  should  be  soaked  from  20  to  30 
minutes,  then  dried  upon  newspapers  or  cheese  cloth,  and  planted  at 
once.  Rotation  of  the  crop  offers  a further  means  of  control.  It  ha.s 
not  been  possible  to  develop  types  of  cabbage  that  show  a resistance  to 
black  rot  in  a manner  comparable  to  that  which  has  been  done  in  the 
case  of  yellows.  Strains  resistant  to  yellows  show  no  resistance  toward 
black  rot. 

Another  disease  sometimes  confused  with  black  rot  is  l)lack  leg. 
This  disease  shows  as  a corky,  hard,  dead  condition  of  the  base  of  the 
stem  and  upper  portion  of  the  root.  It  is  seed-borne,  the  same  as 
black  rot.  However,  the  fungus  producing  the  disease  may  penetrate 
the  seed  coat  and  thus  get  beyond  the  reach  of  disinfectants.  Where 
infection  is  on  the  surface,  the  corrosive  sublimate  treatment  will  be 
effective.  It  is  highly  important  to  have  the  seed  bed  for  cabbage 
seedlings  on  soil  which  is  not  contaminated  with  any  cabbage  refuse, 
and  to  practice  a thorough  rotation  of  crops  in  the  field,  so  as  to 
minimize  the  possibility  of  transfer  of  infection  through  cabbage  sick 
soil. 


New  Farm  Facts 


65 


Club  root  is  another  cabbage  disease,  which  so  far  is  not  widely  dis- 
tributed over  the  state,  although  it  has  been  found  particularly  this 
year  in  the  fields  of  a number  of  farmers  near  Stevens  Point.  In  this 
disease  the  cabbage  root  is  much  malformed  and  consequently  the 
grovvth  of  the  plant  itself  is  affected. 

Spraying  and  Clean  Cultivation  Control  Cherry  Leaf  Spot 

Spraying  and  clean  cultivation  have  proved  the  most  successful  reme- 
dies in  the  control  of  cherry  leaf  spot.  Previous  conclusions  concern- 


FIG.  19-CHFRRY  Al^^l’ACKED  BY  LEAFSPOT 

Compare  this  Avith  Fig-.  20.  "J'liis  tree  received  no  early  clean  cultivation,  nor  plowing 
under  of  all  litter  on  the  ground.  Fruit  fails  to  mature  because  there  is  no  plant  food 
produc*ed  which  supports  normal  ripening  process. 

ing  the  disease  in  the  Sturgeon  Bay  cherry  district  have  been  further 
verified!  by  G.  W.  Keitt  (Plant  Pathology). 

The  important  questions  in  connection  with  the  spraying  experiments 
were:  (1)  the  comparative  merits  of  bordeaux  mixture  and  lime- 

sulphur  for  the  control  of  the  disease;  (2)  the  most  desirable  dilutions 
of  these  sprays;  and  (3)  the  most  desirable  time  and  number  of  ap- 
plications. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  3-3-50,  and  lime-sulphur,  1-40,  controlled  the  dis- 
ease satisfactorily  when  applied:  (1)  just  after  the  petals  fell,  and 
(2)  about  two  weeks  later.  Bordeaux  mixture  gave  a slightly  better 
control  of  the  disease  than  did  lime-sulphur,  hut  caused  much  foliage 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


injury  and  defoliation  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season.  Lirae-sulphur 
caused  no  appreciable  injury  and  gave  a very  good  commercial  con- 
trol. Further  trials  are  necessary  to  determine  whether  the  bordeaux 
injury  will  be  sufficient  to  justify  discontinuing  it  and  substituting  lime- 
sulphur.  No  essential  difference  could  be  determined  in  the  application 
of  the  bordeaux  mixture  in  the  two  different  strengths  mentioned  above, 
so  far  as  disease  control  and  foliage  injury  were  concerned. 

In  addition  to  spraying,  Mr.  Keitt  has  found  that  very  beneficial  re- 
sults ensue  from  clean  cultural  practices  before  blooming  time.  Or- 


riG.  20.— GOOD  SANITATION  CHECKED  LEAPSfPOT 

By  early  spring  cultivation  all  infected  dead  leaves  were  completelj  buried,  thus 
greatly  reducing  infection.  Tliis  sanitary  measure  aids  in  checking  the  disease,  but 
will  not  take  the  place  of  spraying.  Both  trees  were  photographed  in  July. 

chards  in  which  all  refuse  and  litter  were  well  plowed  under  showed 
decidedly  less  leaf  spot  than  those  in  which  old  leaves  and  trash  were 
left  on  the  ground. 


Control  of  Apple  Scab 

Much  progress  has  been  made  during  this  past  season  in  the  life  his- 
tory and  infection  studies  with  the  organism  causing  apple  scab. 
These  have  been  carried  on  by  Mr.  Keitt  under  controlled  conditions 
in  the  green  house,  which  promises  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  method 
of  attack  on  various  problems  relating  to  disease  resistance  and  con- 


New  Farm  Facts 


67 


trol  measures.  These  experiments  show  that  the  leaves  vary  greatly 
in  their  susceptibility  to  the  attack  of  the  fungus  at  different  stages 
in  their  development:  the  younger  leaves  being  more  subject  to  in- 
fection. Even  the  upper  and  lower  surfaces  of  the  individual  leaves 
may  differ  strikingly  in  this  regard,  the  lower  surface  of  older  leaves 
being  relatively  more  susceptible.  Furthermore,  changes  of  environ- 
ment induce  marked  changes  in  infection  and  the  development  of  the 
disease.  The  foliage  of  different  varieties  shows  also  a difference  La 
response  to  the  attacks  of  the  fungus.  The  success  of  this  last  season’s 
work  in  studying  this  problem  under  the  controlled  conditions  in  the 
greenhouse  in  comparison  with  the  observations  made  under  field  con- 
ditions, indicates  the  great  desirability  of  extending  materially  the 
more  accurately  controlled  experimental  work.  It  is  then  possible  to 
try  out  the  results  of  such  experimental  work  in  the  field  and  to  de- 
termine whether  the  natural  conditions  can  be  explained  in  the  light  of 
the  experimental  results. 

Spraying  experiments  were  continued  along  the  same  lines  as  last  year. 
In  general,  lime  sulphur  has  continued  to  give  satisfactory  results 
while  bordeaux  mixture  continues  to  show  heavy  russeting  of  varieties 
that  are  most  susceptible  to  this  type  of  injury. 

Home-Grown  Bean  Seed  Best 

Ten  factories  in  Wisconsin  can  green  or  string  beans.  Although  it 
is  a sideline  with  some,  to  fill  in  the  time  between  pea  and  corn  seasons, 
with  others  it  is  a main  canning  crop. 

The  factories  generally  grow  a small  fraction  of  their  bean  acreage 
on  farms  controlled  by  them  and  contract  with  the  neighboring  farmers 
for  the  major  part.  The  farmer  cares  for  the  crop  and  is  furnished 
seed  at  cost  price,  but  the  picking  is  done  by  children  of  grade  schools 
who  are  carried  back  and  forth  from  the  fields  by  the  factory  trucks. 
A large  amount  of  hand  work  is  associated  with  bean  canning  at 
present,  not  only  in  the  field  but  in  the  factory  process  as  well.  The 
result  has  been  to  curtail  the  rapid  growth  of  the  industry. 

A disease  outbreak  in  Shawano  County  noted  by  Mr.  Holden  (Agron- 
omy) was  analyzed  by  F.  R.  Jones  and  W.  B.  Tisdale  (Plant  Pathology) 
as  bacterial  blight. 

Corrosive  sublimate  has  been  used  in  treating  the  seed  with  a fair 
degree  of  success  by  the  Louisiana  station.  Until  more  information 
can  be  collected  and  its  value  demonstrated,  it  seems  that  the  most 
practicable  solution  for  the  bean  canners  of  Wisconsin  lies  in  growing 
their  own  seed  for  planting.  This  will  prevent  bringing  diseases  into 
the  state  from  the  infected  areas  of  the  bean-growing  regions. 

Bacterial  Spot  of  Lima  Bean 

In  the  summer  of  1917,  lima  beans  growing  in  the  vicinity  of  Racine 
were  found  by  W.  B.  Tisdale  (Plant  Pathology)  to  be  infected  with  a 


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disease  that  hitherto  had  not  been  described.  Later,  the  same  disease 
was  found  upon  a similar  plant  at  Madison.  The  disease  continued  to 
spread  to  the  upper  leaves  throughout  the  season,  and  by  the  latter 
part  of  August  the  plants  were  so  badly  affected  that  many  of  the 
blossoms  and  young  pods  were  shed.  The  older  pods  showed  reddish 
colored  lesions  which  extended  through  the  hull  of  the  bean,  attacking 
the  seed  coat.  During  the  summers  of  1919  and  1920,  the  disease  has 
reappeared. 

A study  of  the  factors  causing  it  indicate  that  it  is  due  to  a bac- 
terial organism.  This  can  be  taken  from  the  diseased  spots,  and  will 
produce  the  disease  both  under  greenhouse  and  field  conditions. 

Bacteeial  Black  Leg  of  Potato 

The  bacterial  disease  of  potato  known  as  black  leg  originally  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Appel  of  Germany,  has  been  found  in  several  plants  in 
the  vicinity  of  Racine.  Various  fields  of  Early  Ohio  potatoes,  which 
were  planted  with  seed  from  three  different  shipments  from  the  Red 
River  valley  in  Minnesota,  have  shown  infection.  Mr.  J.  Monteith 
(Plant  Pathology)  found  in  the  case  of  one  field,  as  high  as  26  per  cent 
of  the  plants  showing  black  leg.  In  tracing  back  the  seed  to  the  point 
of  original  purchase,  it  was  found  that  a carload  of  this  seed  had  been 
distributed  among  growers  in  the  vicinity  of  Racine.  Infection  ranging 
from  2 per  cent  to  26  per  cent  was  observed  on  all  of  the  fields  planted 
from  this  carload.  In  the  case  of  the  highest  percentage  of  infection, 
the  growers  said  they  noticed  little  or  no  evidence  of  diseased  tubers  at 
the  time  of  cutting  the  seed.  The  growers  whose  fields  had  the  smallest 
amount  of  infection  fully  discarded  all  tubers  that  had  shown  signs 
of  decay  or  discoloration  when  the  seed  was  cut.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  this  relatively  new  disease  may  be  spread  through  infected  seed. 

The  disease  can  doubtless  be  most  readily  controlled  by  giving  careful 
attention  to  the  history  of  potato  seed  stock,  discarding  seed  showing 
rot,  and  by  applying  the  usual  formaldehyde  or  corrosive  sublimate 
treatments  for  the  disinfection  of  the  seed. 

Variation  in  Disease  Resistance  of  Onions  to  Onion  Smudge 

The  varying  susceptibility  of  different  strains  of  onions  to  the 
smudge  disease  of  that  crop  w’as  noted  several  years  ago  by  J.  C. 
Walker  (Plant  Pathology).  He  found  that  red  and  yellow  onions  are 
highly  resistant  while  white  varieties  are  very  susceptible  to  the  dis- 
ease. The  importance  of  this  observation  in  relation  to  the  disease 
resistance  in  plants  has  led  to  further  studies.  Extracts  from  colored 
onions  are  found  to*  be  very  toxic  to  the  spores  of  the  parasite  while 
those  from  white  onions  are  not.  Moreover,  the  absence  of  pigment 
in  certain  parts  of  the  scales  from  the  colored  strains  usually  renders 
that  portion  susceptible.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  resistance  of 


New  Farm  Facts 


69 


the  plant  to  the  infection  from  the  smudge  fungus  is  closely  bound 
up  with  the  coloring  matter  in  the  bulbs. 

Efforts  are  now  being  made  to  isolate  the  compound  which  is  re- 
sponsible for  this  resistance. 

Dry  Heat  Treatment  for  Control  of  Cereal  Seed  Borne  Diseases 

The  effect  of  dry  heat  upon  seed  germination,  disease  control,  and 
yield  of  wheat  and  barley  has  been  tested  by  J.  G.  Dickson  (Plant 
Pathology).  Barley  is  found  to  withstand  heating  for  longer  periods 


FIG.  21.— SEEI>LING  BLIGHT  DOES  NOT  DEVELOP  IN  A COOL  SOIL 

A good  stand  of  wheat  was  obtained  from  scab  infected  seed  when  the  soil  was 
cool.  The  yields  of  all  the  plots  planted  before  April  22  showed  the  wheat  scab 
parasite  incapable  of  producing  the  seedling  blight  in  a cool  soil,  while  in  warmer 
soil  the  fungus  throve  luxuriantly  (See  Fig.  22). 

without  injury  to  germination  or  reduction  of  vigor.  Wheat  germinates 
after  long  periods  of  heating,  but  yields  are  greatly  reduced.  It  was 
found  that  a three-hour  treatment  of  100°  C.  controlled  wheat  scab,  and 
seedling  blight,  and  greatly  reduced  the  smuts  of  these  crops,  some  of 
them  being  fully  controlled.  This  period  of  exposure  is,  however,  to 3 
short  to  kill  the  hibernating  fungus  of  the  organism  of  barley  stripe 
(Helminthosporium)  within  the  seed. 

Soaking  the  seed  in  formaldehyde  followed  by  the  dry  heat  treat- 
ment, promises  good  results  in  controlling  the  stripe  disease. 

One  Fungus  Causes  Three  Diseases 

The  fungus  which  causes  the  wheat  scab  disease  has  been  found  to 
cause  a blight  of  wheat  seedlings  and  a root  rot  of  corn  as  well,  by 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Mr.  Dickson  (cooperating  with  Office  of  Cereal  Investigations,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture).  The  fact  that  two  crops  which 
so  frequently  follow  one  another  in  a rotation  are  affected  by  the  same 
disease  organism  makes  this  a much  more  dangerous  proposition  than 
otherwise.  This  disease,  already  well  established  in  the  corn  belt  re- 
gion, has  made  its  appearance  in  Wisconsin.  The  scab  generally  oc- 
curs on  the  heads  of  wheat,  but  also  affects  rye,  oats,  barley,  and  sev- 
eral common  weed  grasses.  The  diseased  portions,  varying  from  a 
single  spikelet  to  the  entire  head,  turn  yellow  and  shrivel  much  sooner 
than  the  remainder  of  the  head.  The  kernels  in  the  diseased  portion 


FIG.  22.— SEEDLING  BLIGHT  DEVELOPS  IN  A WARM  SOIL 

Wheat  planted  late,  April  22  or  later,  was  killed  by  the  wheat  scab  fungus. 
Clean  seed  produces  a good  stand  (left)  where  diseased  seed  is  a total  failure 
(right). 

of  the  head  are  badly  shriveled  and  are  easily  recognized  by  the  light 
grey  color.  The  fungus  remains  in  the  kernel  and  when  planted  with 
the  healthy  seed  the  next  season  grows  into  the  young  seedling  and 
the  adjacent  seedlings  from  healthy  kernels  to  produce  the  seedling 
blight.  Often  the  seedlings  are  killed  before  they  reach  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  The  only  symptoms  then  are  poor  germination  and  a 
light  stand.  Other  diseased  seedlings  grow  for  a short  time  but  finally 
turn  yellow  and  wilt  as  the  parasite  rots  them  off  just  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil. 

The  organism  grows  through  the  remainder  of  the  summer  on  the 
crop  refuse  on  the  surface  of  the  field.  It  is  evident  later  in  the  fall 
on  old  straw  and  stubble,  corn'  stalks,  and  grass  by  the  large  number 
of  small,  black,  round  winter  spore  cases  on  the  surface  of  the  mate- 


New  Farm  Facts 


71 


rial.  The  following  season,  the  spores  within  these  winter  cases  (asco- 
spores)  grow  and  produce  masses  of  summer  spores  (conidia)  which 
cause  the  scab  on  the  wheat  heads. 

Of  still  greater  significance  to  the  farmer  is  the  fact  that  this  same 
parasite  causes  a seedling  blight  of  corn  similar  to  that  of  wheat  and 
in  addition  a serious  root  rot  of  corn.  This  parasite  is  only ‘one  of 
several  that  may  cause  the  root,  stalk,  and  ear  rots  of  corn.  The 
fungus  lives  from  one  season  to  the  next  in  the  corn  seed  or  in  decayed 
vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  and  attacks  the  germinating  corn,  killing 


PIG.  23.— CORN  ROOT  ROT  CAUSED'  BY  WHEAT  SCAB  ORGANISM 

Normally  a parasite  does  not  pass  readily  from  one  kind  of  plant  to  another. 
This  disease,  however,  causes  a root  rot  in  corn,  and  scab  and  seedling  blight  in 
wheat.  It  weakens  or  destroys  growth  in  wheat  and  in  com  the  affected  plants  are 
easily  uprooted  and  the  ears  break  at  the  shank. 

the  seedlings  either  before  they  reach  the  surface  of  the  soil,  or  during 
the  early  development  of  the  seedlings.  The  symptoms  of  this  root  and 
stalk  rot  vary  from  dwarfed,  barren  stalks  to  production  of  nubbins,  or 
broken,  rotted  stalks  with  immature,  light  ears.  The  stalks  break  over 
at  the  shank  and  are  uprooted  by  a light  wind  and  the  ears  break  at  the 
shank  and  hang  down. 

When  wheat  is  planted  after  corn,  or  when  wheat  follows  wheat — 
as  is  done  throughout  most  of  the  corn  belt — the  fungus  grows  on  the 
wheat  straw  and  stubble  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  attacks  the 
corn  crop  causing  a seedling  blight  and  root  and  stalk  rot.  The  winter 
spores  are  formed  on  the  corn  stalks  left  on  the  field;  these  are  carried 
to  the  wheat  crop  the  next  season.  The  methods  of  farming  are  such 
that  an  epidemic  of  wheat  scab  is  inevitable  if  the  weather  is  favorable. 


72 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Control  measures  to  prevent  loss.  Control  measures  for  such  a series 
of  diseases  are  not  simple.  The  first  thing  to  do,  however,  is  to  clean 


FIG.  24.— WHEAT  SCAB  BLIGHTS  THE:  HEAD  AND  SHEIVELS  THE  KERNELS 

Scab  infections  vary  from  a single  spikelet  to  the  entire  head  (extreme  left).  The 
infected  spikelets  bleach  out  and  shrivel  as  soon  as  dry  weather  sets  in.  The  scab 
organism  often  appears  as  a pink,  sticky  mass  on  the  outside  of  the  glumes.  The 
kernels  are  shriveled,  almost  white  and  of  very  light  weight. 


all  stubble  and  crop  material,  for  the  fungus  does  not  develop  on  these 
materials  below  the  soil  surface.  As  it  is  almost  impossible  to  plow 
up  the  fields,  it  is  best  to  cut  the  corn  and  remove  it.  Then  plow 


New  Farm  Facts 


73 


under  all  of  this  material,  follow  corn  with  oats  or  other  crop  than 
wheat,  and  finally,  plant  a legume  crop  every  few  years. 

The  ordinary  seed  treatments  for  wheat  do  not  entirely  destroy  the 
parasite  in  the  diseased  seed  because  it  is  well  inside  the  kernel. 
Therefore,  select  clean  seed  wheat  where  possible.  All  seed  should  be 
cleaned  with  a fanning  mill  and  given  the  formaldehyde  treatment. 

Field  plantings  have  shown  that  planting  wheat  when  the  soil  is 
cool,  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring,  and  the  last  safe  date  in  the 
fall,  helps  in  controlling  the  seedling  blight.  Early  planting  also  as- 
sures a crop  maturing  before  the  rust  and  scab  ravage  the  crop  late 
in  the  summer.  On  the  other  hand,  experiments  have  shown  that  dis- 
eased corn  or  healthy  corn  planted  in  a diseased  soil  of  low  tempera- 
ture is  killed  by  the  parasite,  whereas  the  same  corn  in  a warm  soil 
develops  a fair  crop.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  corn  should  not  be 
planted  until  the  last  safe  date,  or  until  the  soil  is  warmed. 

Aphis  and  Beetle  Carry  Cucumber  Mosaic 

Further  studies  on  the  mosaic  disease  affecting  cucumbers  havel 
been  carried  out  cooperatively  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
the  Pickle  Packers’  Association,  and  the  university.  S.  P.  Doolittle 
(Plant  Pathology)  has  demonstrated  that  in  addition  to  the  wild  cu- 
cumber previously  reported,  the  wild  milkweed  (Asclepias  syriaca),  is 
also  a host  for  this  disease.  In  a field  under  observation  near  Madi- 
son, cucumber  mosaic  was  first  found  near  milkweed  which  had  the 
mosaic  disease.  This  disease  is  transferred  from  one  plant  to  another 
by  the  aphis  as  well  as  by  the  striped  beetle.  Other  wild  hosts  also 
may  be  located  which  will  have  a decided  economic  bearing  on  the 
natural  distribution  of  this  disease  in  cucumber  fields. 

A New  Noxious  Alien  Weed 

Several  years  ago  a new  weed  of  the  mustard  family  appeared  on  the 
University  Farm.  Its  leaf  characters  closely  resembled  yellow  marsh 
cress  (Radicula  palustris),  which  is  an  annual  not  difficult  to  control. 
Therefore,  little  attention  was  paid  to  the  visitant.  The  weed  first 
appeared  In  a field  of  alfalfa;  and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  intro- 
duced through  imported  alfalfa  seed.  Its  dangerous  activities  were 
noted  in  1917  by  A.  L.  Stone  (Agronomy),  after  it  had  established  itself 
in  a field  of  alfalfa  which  was  growing  luxuriantly.  In  spite  of  the 
fact  that  alfalfa  enables  even  as  troublesome  a weed  as  Canada  thistle 
to  be  readily  controlled,  the  new  weed  was  so  aggressive  that  it  estab- 
lished itself  thoroughly  in  several  patches.  In  one  of  these  it  had 
multiplied  so  rapidly  that  almost  an  acre  of  ground  was  infested 


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Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


iiiiiiiiiitniiiiiiii-iMiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiniiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiini 

4iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiii;iiMiiiiiiiuiiiuiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniimiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


SEARCH  FAR  AND  NEAR  TO  LENGTHEN  FARM 
CROP  LIST 

When  one  recalls  that  our  long  list  of  valuable  plants  orig- 
inated from  wild  life,  the  improvement  that  has  been  made 
seems  nothing  short  of  miraculous. 

Man  has  remolded  nature  so  completely  that  in  many  cases 
the  links  between  the  first  forms  and  the  present  types  can 
be  scarcely  traced.  Occasionally,  men  have  worked  wonders 
by  making  this  or  that  combination,  the  successes  remaining 
while  the  failures  have  been  lost. 

Gradually  outstanding  points  of  excellence  have  been  noted 
and  with  this  foundation  still  further  improvement  has  been 
effected.  In  the  field  of  farm  crops  the  agronomist  has  un- 
locked a few  of  the  secrets  of  nature  and  applied  them  in  pro- 
ducing better  grain,  com,  and  hay. 

The  American  Indian  grew  com  for  food,  but  if  he  could 
see  the  thousands  of  acres  of  Golden  Glow  com  which  orig- 
inated from  the  work’  of  one  man,  he  would  hardly  recognize 
in  the  well-filled  ears,  any  resemblance  to  his  own  dwarfed 
stalk  and  nubbins. 

Agriculture  today  is  producing  better  barley,  oats,  wheat, 
rye,  and  com  than  ever  before;  an  industry  has  been  built 
around  a fiber  -crop  brought  into  the  state  by  agronomy; 
alfalfa  is  being  bred  to  resist  the  ravages  of  winterkilling; 
Sudan  grass  and  soybeans  are  overcoming  the  handicaps  of 
sandy  soils;  and  practically  every  crop  in  Wisconsin’s  long  list 
is  being  standardized  and  improved. 

The  agronomist,  then,  has  been  a faithful  servant,  of  agri- 
culture. For  the  benefit  of  his  feUow-farmers  he  has  brought 
alfalfa,  the  wonder  forage  plant,  from  Asia;  he  has  intro- 
duced Sudan  grass  from  Africa  to  serve  in  a definite  place 
in  America’s  crop  rotation;  he  has  brought  in  soybeans  from 
China  to  build  our  soils  and  to  improve  our  rations;  he  has 
adapted  the  hemp  plant  of  China  and  Italy  to  our  conditions; 
he  has  found  in  far  away  Turkey  a wheat  which  because  of 
its  hardiness  would  thrive  in  our  climate;  in  fact  he  has  visited 
practically  every  comer  of  the  earth  for  the  sake  of  gar- 
nering plants  of  economic  value  to  the  farmers  of  this  and 
other  states.  His  contribution  to  modem  agriculture  has  been 
generous. 

iiiuiiMiiiiiniinnniiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiitirtiiiiiiiniiiMiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiHMiitiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiimHtiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiuimiiiiiituiiii  iiiiiriiiiiiPiriniMiiff 


New  Farm  Facts 


75 


Cultivation  of  the  field  assisted  in  the  further  spread  of  the  pest,  and 
during  that  season  four  acres  were  infested  to  a greater  or  less  extent. 

In  the  spring  of  1918  this  four-acre  tract  was  planted  to  corn  in  check 
rows;  and  clean  and  persistent  cultivation  was  given  as  long  as  pos- 
sible. By  the  first  of  October  of  that  year,  however,  a heavy  mat  of 
• leaves  covered  the  ground  on  the  most  thickly  infested  portion  of  the 
field.  The  weather  made  it  impossible  to  remove  the  corn  in  time  for 
fall  plowing  of  the  field,  but  it  was  plowed  as  early  as  possible  in  the 
spring  of  1919  and  cultivatd  with  a tractor  cultivator  as  much  as  the 


FIG.  28.— AN  UNDESIRABLE  EUROPEAN  IMMIGRANT 

The  Australian  field  cress  with  fieshy,  running  root  system  and  close-set  rosettes 
of  leaves,  is  a new,  exceedingly  noxious  weed  pest.  Inset  in  the  foreground  shows 
characteristic  growth  of  cress.  Covering  the  weed  with  straw  was  only  partly 
effective  in  destroying  it. 

weather  permitted.  It  was  plowed  the  first  week  in  July,  and  again 
the  latter  part  of  September.  It  was  continuously  cultivated  up 
to  the  first  week  of  October.  Apparently  no  signs  of  growth  were  to  be 
noted  late  in  that  fall,  but  early  in  the  spring  a number  of  plants  ap- 
peared in  various  portions  of  the  field.  These  were  carefully  dug  out 
by  hand,  and  the  field  was  plowed  and  harrowed  throughout  the  entire 
summer.  In  spite  of  careful  and  persistent  work,  an  occasional  plant 
still  appears,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of  stones  where  the  plow 
fails  to  reach  every  root. 

In  the  spring  of  1919,  small  patches  in  the  alfalfa  plots  were  covered 
to  the  depth  of  three  feet  or  more  with  straw  in  an  attempt  to 
smother  the  plants.  This  proved  useless  for  the  pest  soon  grew 
through  the  covering.  Other  patches  covered  to  the  depth  of  six 


76 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


feet  or  more  held  the  weed  more  thoroughly  in  check.  Covering  the 
isolated  areas  with  different  grades  of  heavy  paper  was  the  more  effi- 
cient treatment,  however.  One  area  was  covered  with  building  tar 
paper  at  a cost  of  $1.66  per  square  rod,  and  proved  very  satisfactory, 
although  occasional  breaks  in  this  paper  permitted  plants  to  grow 
through.  Another  area  was  covered  with  heavy  tar  paper  at  a cost  of 
$2.16  per  square  rod,  and  this  also  was  very  satisfactory,  completely 
destroying  the  plants.  A third  area  was  covered  with  red  rosin  build- 
ing paper,  which  is  a medium  heavy  paper  not  tarred.  This  cost  $.83 
per  square  rod,  but  disintegrated  too  rapidly  and  the  plants  came 
through  in  many  places. 


FIG.  26.— KILLING  AUSTRIAN  FIELD  CRESS 


Building  paper  not  readily  torn  is  useful  in  shutting  out  light  and  thus  smothering 
this  troublesome  weed.  Even  the  heavy  growth  of  alfalfa  had  no  effect  in  checking 
this  pest. 

It  has  taken  two  years  of  intensive  work  to  completely  eradicate  this 
weed,  so  that  its  persistent,  noxious  qualities  may  be  regarded  as 
materially  greater  than  those  of  quack  grass  or  Canada  thistles. 

The  roots  of  the  plant  resemble  somewhat  those  of  horseradish,  but 
do  not  have  the  pungent  quality.  If  undisturbed,  the  roots  grow  to  a 
length  of  5 feet  or  more.  Any  small  portion  of  the  root  will  start  a 
young  plant  if  conditions  are  favorable.  When  the  roots  are  turned 
to  the  earth’s  surface  by  cultivation,  leaves  grow  freely. 

In  the  second  year,  stems  arise  from  the  points  where  the  rosettes 
of  leaves  were  borne  the  first  year.  They  branch  freely  and  are  very 
leafy.  Roots  develop  on  stems  covered  by  plowing  or  other  cultivation. 

The  leaves  at  the  base  are  obovate  in  outline,  often  deeply  cut  or 
divided.  They  are  coarsely  toothed,  while  the  stem  leaves  are  more 
finely  toothed.  The  color  is  bright  green  above  and  light  green  be- 


New  Farm  Facts 


77 


neath.  The  flowers  are  small  and  yellow,  borne  on  slender  pedecels, 
from  which  spherical  pods  appear,  but  no  seeds  develop. 

While  this  pest  has  been  found  only  at  Madison,  care  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  its  gaining  a foothold  in  the  state. 

Does  Alfalfa  Impeove  ^vith  Age? 

The  acreage  of  alfalfa  in  this  state  has  increased  from  38,000  to 
97,000  acres  during  the  last  two  years.  The  winter  of  1918  was  ex- 


riG.  27.— AGE  MAKES  A LARGER  PLANT  AND  A DEEPER  AND  MORE  WIDE- 
SPREAD ROOT  DEVELOPMENT  IN  ALEALPA 

Showing  roots  and  plant  of  3-year  old  alfalfa  (1)  which  yielded  5.7  tons  of  hay  an 
acre,  while  the  i-year  old  alfalfa  (2)  yielded  only  4.2  tons. 

cessively  hard  on  our  alfalfa  acreage,  reducing  it  from  72,000  the  year 
before  to  ,38,000  acres  that  year.  The  last  two  winters  on  account  of 
their  mildness  have  not  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  much  of  the 
crop.  In  view  of  the  enormous  practical  importance  of  a full  knowl- 
edge of  the  conditions  under  which  this  most  excellent  forage  crop 
can  be  grown  in  this  state,  L.  F.  Graber  (Agronomy)  has  given  special 
attention  to  the  introduction  of  the  hardy  varieties. 

In  our  experimental  plots  on  the  Hill  Farm  the  records  for  the 
period  1915-1920  show  in  the  six  years  a total  yield  of  Grimm  variety 
from  20.S  to  22.5  tons  an  acre,  while  three  plots  of  Montana  Common 
seed  ranged  from  13.1  tons  to  18.7  tons  per  acre.  Further  results  by 
E.  J.  Delwiche  (Agronomy)  at  Ashland  bear  out  these  statements. 
This  plant  requires  an  unusual  period  of  development  in  order  to 


78 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


become  thoroughly  established.  Under  our  Wisconsin  conditions  the 
first  season’s  yields  of  alfalfa  are  practically  always  smaller  than  at 
any  subsequent  time.  With  the  more  thorough  establishment  of  the 
root  system  and  the  feeding  power  of  the  plants  more  widely  devel- 
oped, larger  amounts  of  forage  are  secured.  Alfalfa  can,  however,  re- 
cover partially  from  winter  injury,  which  results  in  frost  injury  to  the 
crowns  and  roots,  causing  a partial  decay  of  those  tissues  and  weaken- 
ing of  the  feeding  power. 


VEAJmR 

Mild 

Sivf/i£ 

Mild 


Year 


20,000  AO, 000  60,000 


80,000  100,000 


Mild 


1920 


97,000 


PIG.  28.— HOW  WINTERKILLING  APEEiCTS  OUR  ALPALPA  ACREAGE  AND 

PRODUCTION 


Alfalfa  is  better  adapted  to  long  rotation  periods  than  to  short  ones,  unless  winter- 

killing  interferes. 


Comparisons  this  last  year  between  a three-year  old  plot  and  a one- 
year  old  plot  showed  in  a two-cutting  crop  5.7  tons  in  the  older  plot 
compared  with  4.2  tons  in  the  one-year-old  plot.  At  time  of  blossoming 
the  older  alfalfa  for  both  cuttings  was  fully  9 inches  taller.  The  root 
system  was  much  larger,  deeper,  and  more  widely  developed.  It  is 
apparent  under  these  conditions  that  alfalfa  is  more  ideally  adapted  for 
long  rather  than  short  rotation  periods,  unless  hard  winters  counteract 
the  influence  by  destroying  large  numbers  of  the  plants. 

Results  secured  by  Mr.  Delwiche  at  the  Spooner  Station  on  sandy 
loam  show  that  the  crop  can  be  grown  on  such  soils  successfully,  and 
while  outyielding  clover  in  dry  seasons,  when  the  rainfall  is  sufficient 
the  yields  are  practically  the  same. 

In  the  winter  killing  test  plots,  100  strains  planted  in  1916  have  not 
shown  a sign  of  winter  killing.  These  were  grown  from  the  seed  of 
plants  which  grew  on  a very  sandy  hill  near  Ellis  Junction  where  they 
had  stood  for  8 years  without  killing. 


New  Farm  Facts 


79 


Detecting  Non-Genuine  Grimm  Alfalfa 

The  great  importance  of  securing  dependable  sources  of  hardy  seed 
has  led  Mr.  Graber  to  test  out,  in  1280  trial  demonstration  plots,  over 
600  samples  of  seed  which  have  been  collected  from  various  sources 
since  1917.  These  tests  include  common  Native  Western  Alfalfa,  Lis- 
comb,  Peruvian,  Grimm,  Baltic,  Cossack,  Turkestan,  and  Imported 
Italian  varieties.  About  360  plots  were  sown  in  1920,  and  at  the 
present  time  these  demonstration  trial  plots  are  in  progress  in  eight 
different  localities  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state.  Studies  upon 


FIG.  29.— FALL  DORMANCY  SHOWS  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  HARDY  AND 
NON-HARDY  ALFALFA 


The  genuine  Grimm  alfalfa  (center)  had  not  made  sufiBcient  growth  by  Octobe?-  25 
to  cover  the  dead  stubble,  bitt  the  non-genuine  (right  and  left)  was  2 inches  higher 
so  that  flts  green  growth  entirely  covered  the  dead  stubble. 

these  different  varieties  have  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a method  of 
distinguishing  genuine  from  non-genuine  Grimm,  Baltic,  and  Cossack 
varieties  the  first  season  the  alfalfa  is  grown.  This  method  is  based 
upon  the  action  of  the  various  strains  of  alfalfa  after  the  lasf  cutting 
period  in  the  fall.  Genuine  hardy  varieties  show  a fall  dormancy  of 
growth  which  is  strikingly  different  from  the  appearance  of  Montana  or 
Kansas  strains  of  common  alfalfa.  The  hardy  varieties  undergo  a 
period  of  fall  dormancy  which  sets  in  at  a comparatively  early  date, 
whereas  the  common  varieties  continue  to  grow  in  tlie  fall  of  the  year, 
especially  if  there  is  a reasonable  amount  of  rainfall.  It  Is  thus  pos- 
sible during  the  first  season  of  growth  to  differentiate  between  the 
hardy  and  non-hardy  varieties,  and  in  this  way  determine  the  genuine- 
ness of  seed  which  has  previously  been  purchased. 


80 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Close  Clipping  Best  on  Alfalfa  Seedings 

Where  alfalfa  has  been  planted  without  a nurse  crop  it  may  become 
necessary  to  clip  the  field  in  order  to  check  weed  growth;  otherwise  the 
young,  not-yet-established  alfalfa  plant  is  crowded  out.  Close  clipping 
has  always  been  regarded  as  dangerous  on  the  grounds  that  it  “cuts 
the  lungs  out  of  the  new  born  alfalfa.” 

Special  studies  made  upon  this  problem  for  the  last  two  years  at 
Oconomowoc  have  shown  that  close  cutting  gives  better  results  in  con- 
trolling weed  growth,  without  seriously  injuring  the  alfalfa,  than 


FIG.  30.— WISCONSIN  CAN  GROW  SUDAN  GRASS  FOR  SEED 
While  the  quality  Is  good,  growers  do  better  to  buy  their  seed. 

where  5 inches  was  left  in  order  not  to  destroy  so  much  of  the  alfalfa 
growth.  Where  close  cutting  was  practiced  practically  all  weed,  growth 
was  held  in  check.  With  the  customary  amount  of  moisture,  a new, 
healthy,  vigorous  alfalfa  growth  came  on,  while  in  those  plots  where 
the  alfalfa  was  clipped  long,  foxtail  grew  rapidly  and  headed  out 
so  that  the  field  had  to  be  cut  again  in  August  to  save  the  alfalfa. 

Sudan  Grass  and  Soybeans  for  Emergency  Hay 

Winter  killing  of  alfalfa  has  heretofore  given  considerable  difficulty. 
To  a large  extent  this  can  be  overcome  by  introducing  hardier  varieties, 
but  until  these  are  widely  spread  throughout  the  state,  farmers  are 
likely  to  suffer  shortage  in  hay  crops  through  the  winter  killing  of 
alfalfa  and  occasionally  of  clover.  The  importance,  therefore,  of  an 
emergency  forage  (hay)  crop  to  replace  this  loss  is  considerable. 
G.  B.  Mortimer  (Agronomy)  has  been  working  for  five  years  to  deter- 


New  Farm  Facts 


81 


mine  the  adaptability  of  Sudan  grass  for  this  purpose  and  its  use  on 
sandy  soil,  where  it  is  more  difficult  to  secure  good  stands  of  alfalfa 
and  clover  on  account  of  drouth  killing,  and  where  the  fertility  of  the 
soil  is  somewhat  reduced. 

The  experiments  this  year  indicate  that  an  average  of  about  20 
pounds  of  seed  of  Sudan  grass  gives  the  best  results,  yielding  3.2  tons 
per  acre.  With  this  seeding  on  the  more  fertile  types  of  soil  the  grass 
tillers  abundantly.  The  experience  for  the  last  five  years  indicates 
an  average  hay  yield  of  2.5  to  3 tons  per  acre  for  this  period.  This  is 
quite  in  excess  of  either  common  or  German  millet  yields  grown 
under  similar  conditions  on  our  station  farm. 

Last  year,  for  the  first  time,  an  attempt  was  made  to  produce  a better 
hay  by  growing  Sudan  grass  in  combination  with  soybeans.  These  re- 
sults were  so  encouraging  that  the  work  has  been  repeated  this  year 
with  almost  the  same  results.  Although  the  drouth  interfered  to 
some  extent  this  season  by  cutting  down  the  growth  of  the  crop,  the 
combination  mentioned  merits  much  praise  for'  emergency  purposes. 
Sudan  grass  did  well  with  all  varieties  of  beans  used  when  drilled  at 
the  rate  of  10  lbs.  of  Sudan  and  60  lbs.  of  soybeans.  Yields  of  cured 
hay  obtained  with  Wisconsin  varieties  of  soybeans  ran  from  2.8  tons  to 
3.25  tons  an  acre.  On  sandier  soils  where  soybeans  do  well,  there  is  a 
larger  percentage  of  the  hay  in  beans. 

A comparison  of  peas  and  oats  for  hay  shows  in  the  experiments  of 
the  last  two  years  that  better  results  were  secured  from  Sudan  grass 
alone  and  also  Sudan  with  soybeans  than  from  peas  and  oats.  Where 
peas  were  used  with  a medium  late  oat,  2.72  tonS)  of  cured  hay  were 
grown  as  against  2.13  tons  with  an  early  variety  of  oat.  For  peas  and 
oats,  an  early  seeding  is  required  to  secure  the  best  crop.  Where 
planting  is  delayed  until  relatively  late  in  the  season,  better  results 
apparently  will  be  secured  with  either  Sudan  or  a mixture  of  Sudan 
and  soybeans  than  with  peas  and  oats. 


Better  Small  Grains  for  the  State 

Comparisons  between  the  standard  pedigree  varieties  which  have 
been  developed  at  this  station  and  various  other  strains  of  small  grains 
are  continually  In  progress  by  B.  D.  Leith  (Agronomy).  Some  of  these 
are  tests  of  varieties  offered  for  sale  by  the  seed  men;  others  are  new 
selections  made  by  crossing  old  strains.  The  general  plan  is  to  test  a 
variety  for  five  consecutive  years  in  small  test  plots  run  In  duplicate 
in  comparison  with  a standard  pedigreed  variety  before  it  is  sent  out 
for  further  testing  among  the  members  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Association. 

Winter  Wheat.  The  season  was  very  favorable  for  the  growth  of 
winter  wheat.  The  yield  was  high  and  the  quality  good.  Two  intro- 
ductions from  the  Ashland  Branch  Station  tested  here  at  Madison  in 
1920  yielded  53.9  and  50.7  bushels  an  acre  respectively,  while  the 


82 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


standard  Turkey  Red,  Wis.  Pedigree  No.  2,  yielded  46.7  bushels.  In 
five  years,  however,  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  2 has  given  an  average 
yield  of  33.9  bushels  an  acre,  which  establishes  it  as  a high  yielding 
strain.  Further  consideration,  however,  will  be  given  the  two  new 
introductions. 

-Spring  Wheat.  Spring  wheats  rusted  badly  this  year.  The  three 
highest  yielding  varieties  were  crosses  with  durum  and  a durum  strain. 
The  durum,  however,  softened  much  this  season  and  was  of  poor  qual- 
ity. The  two  severe  rust  epidemics  which  have  occurred  here  within 


MG.  31.— WINTER  WHEAT  SUPERIOR  IN  YIELD 

In  the  last  5 ^ears  winter  wheat  has  averaged  33.9  bushels  an  acre  while  spring 
wheat  has  yielded  an  average  of  only  18.2  bushels. 

the  last  five  years  have  almost  destroyed  the  spring  wheat,  but  did  no 
appreciable  damage  to  the  winter  wheat. 

Five-year  'average  yields  showed  that  the  spring  vrheat  yield  was 
about  one-half  that  of  winter  wheat  for  the  same  period,  confirming 
the  conclusion  in  last  year’s  report  that  winter  wheat  is  preferable  in 
this  state. 

Winter  Rye.  This  year  Rosen  rye  oiityielded  Wisconsin  Pedigree 
No.  2 by  4.3  bushels  an  acre  in  test  plots,  Rosen  produced  53.5  bushels 
weighing  54.5  lbs.  a bushel,  while  Pedigree  No.  2 produced  49.2  bushels 
weighing  58.8  lbs.  a bushel,  but  in  a comparative  acre  test  No.  2 
outyielded  Rosen  rye  by  2.6  bushels  an  acre.  In  the  three-year  test  so 
far  carried  out,  Pedigree  No.  2 has  yielded  an  average  of  44.5  bushels 
an  acre  while  Rosen  yielded  34.9  bushels. 

A three-year  test  made  bet^veen  winter  and  spring  rye  shows  spring 


New  Farm  Pacts 


83 


rye  to  be  regularly  lower  in  yield  than  pedigreed  winter  rye,  ranging 
from  11.8  to  26.1  bushels  an  acre  less,  and  on  the  three-year  average 
practically  only  one-half  of  the  crop  produced  by  winter  rye. 

Oats.  More  varieties  of  oats  than  any  other  kind  of  grain  seem  to 
be  placed  upon  the  market.  Many  of  these  are  duplicated  under  dif- 
ferent names,  a fact  that  can  only  be  brought  out  by  comparative 
crop  production  tests  in  which  the  habits  of  growth  are  closely  wmtched 
for  comparisons. 


FIG.  32.— AVERAGE  PLulNTS  OP  DIPPEREiNT  VARIETIES  OF  SOYBEAJsS 

1.  Medium  Green  from  Scott  Co.  7.  Haberlandt 

2.  Medium  Green  from  University  farm  8.  Ohio  9035 

3.  Manchu  9.  Black  Beauty 

4.  Mongol  10.  Mammoth  Yellow 

5.  Southern  Hollybrook  11.  Ito  San 

t).  A.  K.  from  Illinois  Station  12.  Wilson 

Barley.  The  number  of  varieties  of  barley  tested  is  not  as  large, 
because  the  pedigreed  barleys  have  now  become  so  thoroughly  estab- 
lished. A new  Manchurian  barley  introduced  from  Canada  (No.  90) 
is  comparing  well  with  the  Wisconsin  pedigrees.  The  two-rowed  bar- 
leys, Gold  of  the  chevalier  type,  and  the  Swan  neck,  fall  below  the 
Wisconsin  pedigree  grains,  both  in  yield  and  weight  per  bushel.  Far- 
ther testing  of  the  two-rowed  barleys  will  be  discontinued,  as  our 
present  experience  shows  conclusively  that  neither  of  the  types  can 
compete  with  the  pedigree  barleys. 

SoYMKAXS  Foil  SiLAGK,  HaY,  OR  FOKAOE 

The  varieties  of  soybeans  heretofore  recommended  for  seed  have  been 
the  Early  Black,  Ito  San,  Manchu,  and  Black  Eyebrow,  because  they 
have  proven  to  be  the  surest  yielders.  Tests  at  the  University  Farm 
by  G.  M.  Briggs  (Agronomy)  show  that  there  are  other  varieties  that 


84 


Wisconsin'  Bulletin  323 


can  be  matured  here,  but  they  do  not  possess  merits  over  the  varieties 
previously  raised.  For  southern  Wisconsin  the  Elton  could  possibly  be 
selected  and  would  be  a good  yielder,  but  it  has  no  superior  qualities 
over  the  other  varieties.  Early  Green  ripened  very  well  this  year,  and 
due  to  its  manner  of  growing  makes  a highly  desirable  variety — one 
which  does  not  shatter  more  than  other  varieties  and  makes  a spendid 
upright  growth. 

For  hay  or  silage,  the  early  seed  varieties  grow  much  larger  and 
make  greater  yields  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state  than  on  the  light 
soils  in  southern  Wisconsin.  Mongol  in  this  year's  tests  was  more 
preferable  in  this  state  than  the  Mammoth  variety.  It  podded  well, 
grew  upright,  and  held  its  leaves  well,  while  the  Mammoth  was  weak 
vined  in  many  cases  and  did  not  reach  the  podding  stage.  The  ques- 
tion of  seed  supply  at  the  present  time  is  a limiting  factor  in  the 
recommendation  of  this  variety. 

Planting  soybeans  in  com  for  hogging  and  sheeping  off  is  rapidly 
growing  in  popularity — Ito  San,  Manchu,  and  Black  Eyebrow  are  all 
particularly  good  varieties  for  this  purpose. 

Trials  conducted,  planting  the  soybeans  in  com,  have  thus  far  failed 
to  show  any  increase  in  yield  over  that  when  com  is  planted  alone, 
due  perhaps  to  the  interference'  with  cultivation,  thereby  permitting  the 
growth  of  weeds. 


StrvFLOWEBS  Used  fob  Silage 

Sunflowers  were  unsatisfactory  at  the  University  Farm  in  1919. 
In  the  middle  of  August  the  field  was  stricken  with  an  epidemic  of 
sunflower  rust  (Puccinia  helianthi),  which  caused  a rapid  and  almost 
total  destruction  of  the  leaves.  The  silage  which  was  made  out  of  this 
material  was  poor  in  quality  and  unpalatable.  This  year  observations 
upon  sunflower  culture  were  continued  by  E.  D.  Holden  (Agronomy), 
several  varieties  being  utilized  for  this  purpose.  The  seed  was  planted 
with  a com  planter,  using  the  same  plates  which  were  used  for  corn. 
In  spite  of  the  relatively  dry  weather  this  season,  considerable  rust  was 
found,  especially  on  the  Giant  Russian  variety.  The  mst  appeared 
much  worse  upon  the  thickly  planted  plots.  Considerable  aphis  injury 
was  also  observed  in  the  various  plots.  The  sunflowers  were  cut  with 
a corn  binder  and  ensiled  on  August  29  the  crop  yielding  8%  tons  per 
acre  for  the  Argentine  variety  and  20  and  25%  tons  for  the  Giant 
Russian. 

Inspection  was  also  made  of  a number  of  fields  in  Lincoln  and  Lang- 
lade Counties.  These  northern  fields  showed  the  effect  of  drouth,  which 
had  retarded  the  growth  and  cut  down  the  yields  greatly,  but  corn 
in  the  same  region  suffered  even  worse.  Where  com  and  sunflowers 
were  grown  in  the  same  field,  the  sunflower  crop  was  larger  and  heavier. 
The  effect  of  frost  upon  sunflowers  and  corn  was  noted  in  the  field  of 
August  Goeman  at  Antigo,  where  a frost  in  the  early  part  of  Sep- 
tember had  killed  the  corn.  The  stalks  were  white,  dry,  and  brittle. 


New  Farm  Facts 


85 


while  the  sunflowers  were  one-third  taller  than  the  corn,  of  normal 
green  color,  and  showed  no  effects  of  frost. 

Where  sunflowers  are  grown  for  silage,  it  is  obvious  that  they  should 
be  cut  earlier  than  has  previously  been  recommended  in  order  to  save 
the  leaves,  which  have  a tendency  to  dry  up  late  in  the  season,  and  to 
preserve  the  succulence  of  the  stems,  thus  avoiding  a rough,  unpalatable 
silage.  Mr.  Holden  believes  that  the  most  favorable  time  for  cutting  is 
when  10  to.  30  per  cent  of  the  plants  are  in  bloom.  The  time  of  cut- 
ting should  be  based  upon  the  condition  of  the  leaves  and  the  crop  left 


FIG.  S3.— SUNFLOWERS  RESIST  FROST  BETTER  THAN  CORN 

A field  at  Antigo,  September  1,  showing  corn  killed  by  frost,  while  sunfiowers  were 

not  affected. 

to  mature  as  long  as  the  leaves  are  fresh  and  green.  Sunflowers  are 
not  injured  by  light  frosts  or  even  such  as  will  kill  corn. 

Hastening  Maturity  with  Cold  Resistant  Corn 

Further  experimental  work  has  been  carried  on  by  Mr.  Leith  on  a 
comparison  of  No.  12  Golden  Glow  corn  and  the  particular  strain 
which  was  developed  two  years  ago,  then  referred  to  as  “cold  re- 
sistant.” These  two  types  planted  on  the  Station  Farm  at  Madison  on 
May  1 germinated  as  follows: 

May  19 — 69.8  per  cent  of  Common  No.  12  had  emerged  from  the 
ground  in  comparison  with  the  Cold  Resistant  as  100  per  cent. 

May  20 — 89.8  per  cent. 

May  21—95.2  per  cent. 

May  22 — 98.5  per  cent. 


86 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Comparison  was  also  made  on  earliness  of  maturity,  counts  being 
made  on  August  31,  on  which  date  it  was  found  that  68  per  cent  as 
much  common  Golden  Glow  had  matured  on  that  date  as  the  cold 
resistant.  From  these  data  it  appears  that  a few  days  have  been  added 
at  the  beginning  of  the  growing  season,  and  a few  subtracted  from  the 
close  of  the  season. 

A considerable  number  of  field  experiments  (52)  were  tried  out  in 
Marinette  County  in  cooperation  with  Mr.  Sibole,  Agricultural  Field 
Agent  of  the  Marinette  County  Training  School.  Where  planted  simul- 


FIG.  34.— COLD-RE.SISrrAyT  CORN 

This  com,  which  is  a heavy  yielding-  variety  for  the  upper  edge  of  the  corn  belt, 
was  grown  in  Marinette  County. 


taneously,  in  comparison  with  Common  No.  12,  Cold  Resistant  wa'3 
several  days  later  in  maturing.  Some  farmers,  however,  who  planted 
the  Cold  Resistant  a week  earlier  than  the  usual  planting  date,  had 
corn  with  many  mature  ears  fully  as  far  ahead  as  the  average  No.  12 
or  No.  8 grown  in  that  section.  In  size  of  stalk  and  leaf  this  new  type 
is  slightly  heavier  than  Common  No.  12,  and  is  apparently  in  favor 
with  the  farmers  in  this  section  as  a silage  corn. 

Neav  Pea  Varieties  Developed 

From  meager  beginnings  in  the  nineties  Wisconsin’s  pea  industry  has 
developed  until  this  state  now  cans  more  than  half  the  nation’s  peas. 
As  an  industry  built  right  at  the  door  of  the  farmer,  pea  canning  has 


New  Farm  Facts 


87 


come  to  assume  a;  position  of  particular  importance  in  the  agriculture 
of  the  state.  Problems  met  with  in  the  promotion  and  development  of 
the  industry  have  come  under  the  supervision  of  the  Agronomy  de- 
partment through  the  work  of  Mr.  Delwiche. 

About  250  new  strains,  the  majority  of  which  have  been  produced  at 
the  Ashland  Branch  Station  are  now  under  trial.  From  this  number 

only  a very  few  superior 
I strains  will  be  selected  for 
j further  breeding  and  atten- 
! tion,  but  it  is  from  such  ex- 
I periments  that  the  most  phe- 
' nomenal  results  obtain  in 
the  production  of  new  vari- 
eties. 

Two  new,  sweet,  wrinkled 
canning  varieties  show  ex- 
ceptional promise,  the  Bad- 
ger and  the  Horal.  Their 
peculiar  advantages  over 
other  peas  are  the  small 
size  of  seed,  uniform,  early 
maturity,  and  rapid  strong 
growth. 

A cross  between  the  Hors- 
ford  and  the  Alaska  shows 
a resistance  to  disease,  es- 
pecially root  rot,  a malady 
which  has  only  recently 
come  under  observation. 
Grown  beside  the  Horsford 
which  was  small  and  only 
partially  developed,  this 
new  cross  produced  large 
vines,  practically  free  from 
disease,  and  very  well  pod- 


FJG.  35.— NKW  PKA  S'i’RAIN  RESISTS  ROOT 
RO'J' 

Hybrid  57  (Horsford  and  Alaska)  luxu- 

riantly and  podded  well  on  infected  soil  (left). 
Compare  with  weak,  stunted  errowth  of  Alaska 
.5tj  (right). 


ded.  A development  of  this  variety  promises  much  if  the  disease  re- 
sisting characters  can  be  retained. 


Ii\OCUI>ATION  OF  VlUOI.N  SoihS 

Inoculation  experiments  with  virgin  land  carried  on  at  Ashland  by 
Mr.  Delwiche  with  the  cooperation  of  the  Marengo  Canning  Company 
showed  decisively  better  results  than  where  no  legume  cultures  were 
used.  Culture  inoculated  peas  yielded  1333  lbs.;  soil  inoculated,  1125 


88 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Lbs.;  and  uninoculated,  1016  lbs.  of  seed  to  the  acre,  showing  an  in- 
creased yield  of  317  lbs.  an  acre  for  the  culture  inoculated  peas.  While 
some  of  the  wild  peas  or  vetches  may  have  left  legume  culture  in  the 
soil,  a safe  insurance  on  new  land  is  to  use  the  legume  cultures  •with 
the  seed  peas. 


Peas  foe  Lighter  Soils 

Tests  on  the  Spooner  Branch  Station  by  Mr.  Delwiche  indicate  the 
possibility  of  growing  peas  on  the  lighter  types  of  soils.  While  exces- 
sive drouth  interfered  with  the  growth  in  1920,  in  normal  years  the 
yield  compared  favorably  with  that  on  lighter  types  of  soils.  Lighter 
soils  have  the  advantage  of  freedom  from  excessive  moisture,  thereby 
lessening  the  danger  from  blight  and  rot. 

Markets  and  Machinery  Give  Wisconsin  Lead  in  Hemp  Production 

An  uncertain  market  has  been  one  of  the  principal  factors  influenc- 
ing the  growth  of  the  hemp  fiber  industry.  However,  through  the 
efforts  of  A.  H.  Wright  (Agronomy)  large  quantities  of  short  fiber 
were  shipped  to  European  markets,  150  tons  of  long  fiber  were  dis- 
posed of  to  the  Na-vy,  and  before  June  1,  the  entire  supply  had  been 
sold  at  a very  encouraging  price. 

Hemp  acreage  has  increased  in  1920  to  6500  acres,  or  more  than  2000 
acres  more  than  that  planted  in  1919.  This  acreage  places  Wisconsin 
far  in  the  lead  in  hemp  growing,  for  the  state  now  produces  more 
hemp  than  all  other  states  combined.  With  Wisconsin  the  only  state 
in  1920  which  has  an  increase  in  hemp  acreage,  we  may  attribute 
this  fact  to  the  establishment  of  permanent  mills  with  specialized 
machinery,  and  to  a careful  extension  of  the  market  which  has  placed 
the  industry  upon  a firm  commercial  basis.  In  many  of  the  states 
hand  labor  is  still  being  used,  and  in  Kentucky  where  the  need  for 
labor  on  the  tobacco  crop  is  very  great,  hemp  acreage  has  been  cut 
accordingly.  In  this  state,  however,  machinery  has  come  into  common 
use  not  only  in  the  scutching  mill  but  in  the  field  work  as  well,  until 
the  crop  requires  a minimum  expenditure  of  hand  labor. 


Hemp  Seed  Difficulty 

Buying  seed  cooperatively  through  the  Wisconsin  Hemp  Order  of 
the  Experiment  Association  has  been  carried  out  but  more  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  obtaining  good  seed  last  year  than  in  any  other 
since  the  founding  of  the  industry.  Unscrupulous  activities  tending 
toward  a monopoly  of  the  hemp  seed  created  a serious  condition,  par- 
ticularly as  much  old  seed  was  left  from  previous  years.  While  the 
old  seed  would  have  been  perfectly  satisfactory  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions when  the  seed  could  have  been  tested,  in  the  approach  of  planting 


New  Farm  Facts 


89 


time,  one  carload  was  bought  which  was  not  tested  and  hurried  for- 
ward to  the  mills.  No  germination  test  was  run  because  the  seed 
arrived  late  in  the  season,  and  as  a result  over  300  bushels  failed  to 
grow.  About  half  the  carload  was  absolutely  worthless.  The  mills  at 
Brandon  and  Waupun  were  supplied  with  the  same  type  of  seed  and 
several  hundred  acres  were  either  lost  or  the  yield  reduced  as  a result. 
The  same  dealers  supplied  their  own  mill  with  seed  at  Roberts  and 
report  that  out  of  1600  acres  planted  they  have  800  acres  of  good  hemp. 

While  farmers  have  thus  far  been  having  great  success  in  raising  the 
crop,  the  poor  seed,  together  with  a slightly  unfavorable  season,  and 
economic  conditions  tending  toward  a lower  price  level  will  un- 
doubtedly all  have  their  effect  and  we  may  anticipate  a reduced  acreage 
in  1921. 


riG.  36.— HEMP  rS  INDISPENSABLE  IN  THE  NAVY 

A section  of  a 25-inch  diameter  hemp  cable,  over  700  feet  long  and  weighing  15,000 
pounds,  as  it  is  used  on  a “ship  of  the  line.” 


Hemp  May  Aid  Marsh  Reclamation 

Growing  hemp  on  marshy  lands  has  not  been  encouraged  because  of 
the  large  amount  of  upland  which  is  still  available  for  the  production 
of  the  crop,  but  hemp  may  prove  very  useful  in  the  reclamation  of 
marsh  soils. 

From  several  years  of  hemp  growing  on  marsh  lands,  Mr.  Wright 
has  found  that  on  such  lands  hemp  makes  an  exceptionally  good 
growth.  The  height  obtained  is  usually  good;  frosts  very  rarely  if  ever 
do  any  damage;  the  season  in  this  state  is  ample  for  the  production 
of  a very  good  crop;  and  the  yield  of  straw  and  total  fiber  is  heavy. 
While  the  quality  of  fiber  obtained  from  newly  broken  marsh  soils  is 
practically  worthless  for  spinning,  observations  show  that  where  hemp 
has  been  grown  two  or  three  years  in  succession  on  the  marsh  lands, 
decided  improvement  has  followed.  When  the  crop  is  grown  on  soils 
that  have  Been  cultivated  for  a period  of  five  to  ten  years  with  such 
intertilled  crops  as  cabbage  and  sugar  beets,  a very  good  quality  of  fiber 
is  produced. 


90 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Hemp  Seed  Growing 

We  are  still  trying  to  obtain  through  selection  a strain  of  fiber  hemp 
which  will  mature  seed  in  this  state  so  that  hemp  growers  will  event- 
ually be  independent  of  external  conditions  in  procuring  their  seed. 
It  seems  evident  from  the  past  ten  years’  wmrk  along  this  line  that  in 
order  to  obtain  a strain  that  will  mature  here,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
sacrifice  other  desirable  characters  to  some  extent.  The  Chinese  and 
Japanese  strains  of  hemp,  which  the  the  progenitors  of  American  fiber 
hemp,  are  a great  deal  better  from  the  standpoint  of  yield  than  any 


FIG.  37.— THE  PARENTS  AND  THE  NEW  HEMP  STRAIN 


Tlie  male  parent,  Chinese  hemp  (extreme  left)  crossed  with  the  female,  Italian  strain 
(left  center)  produced  the  new  cross  (the  two  plants  at  the  right)  called  Ferramington, 
which,  differing  from  botRits  parents,  matures  seed  under  Wisconsin  conditions. 

other  kinds  of  hemp  which  we  have  been  able  to  find.  Such  strains, 
however,  require  too  long  a growing  season  to  mature  seed  in  this 
climate. 

After  testing  several  hundred  selections  Mr.  Wright  is  now  concen- 
trating his  efforts  on  a strain  known  as  the  Ferramington.  This 
variety  was  originated  by  crossing  the  Ferrara  (an  Italian  strain)  on 
the  Minnesota  No.  8 (originally  Chinese).  It  matures  sufficiently  early 
to  produce  a very  satisfactory  yield  of  seed  and  attains  a better 
height  than  the  Italian  or  other  early  maturing  kinds.  It  is,  however, 
from  six  inches  to  a foot  shorter  than  the  commercial  strains  of  Ken- 
tucky hemp  which  have  been  grown.  It  has  been  possible  by  selection 
to  increase  slightly  the  height  and  this  year  we  have  grown  two  large 
plots  from  which  sufficient  seed  will  be  available  to  supply  several 
growers  for  1921. 


New  Farm  Facts 


91 


On  account  of  the  difficulties  experienced  in  obtaining  seed,  investiga- 
tion of  the  possibilities  of  using  seed  from  Japan  has  been  made.  Con- 
sequently, varieties  of  Japanese  strains  have  been  tested  to  determine 
which  ones  are  suitable  for  Wisconsin  conditions  and  to  definitely 
locate  the  sections  of  Japan  in  which  such  strains  are  produced  com- 
mercially, A number  of  Japanese  strains  are  exceptionally  good,  hut 
before  obtaining  such  seed  in  commercial  quantities,  it  is  necessary  to 
determine  whether  it  will  be  possible  to  be  supplied  from  Japan  with 
the  kind  of  seed  ordered.  Tests  of  strains  supplied  from  commission 
merchants  and  other  seed  dealers  in  Japan  have  shown  that  such 
sources  of  seed  invariably  produce  plants  that  are  not  usable  for  fiber. 
The  seed. obtained  through  these  channels  would  in  all  probability  he 
the  so-called  Mrd  seed  types  which  are  grown  in  Chosen  and  Man- 
churia, and  which  are  worthless  for  fiber-producing  purposes.  Efforts 
are,  therefore,  being  made  through  official  agencies  in  Japan  to  secure 
a sufficient  amount  of  genuine  fiber  seed  to  start  on  a commercial  basis. 

Eiber  Flax  Possibilities 

Natural  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  in  many  sections  of  Wisconsin 
are  admirably  suited  to  the  cultivation  of  fiber  flax  according  to  trials 
by  Mr.  Wright.  But  while  conditions  for  growing  are  very  favorable, 
economic  aspects  are  very  much  against  a promotion  of  the  industry, 
and  attempts  to  establish  mills  have  been  unsuccessful. 

Flax  growing  has  continued  in  a few  sections  of  the  United  States 
probably  as  much  from  habit  on  the  part  of  the  farmers  as  from  any 
encouragement  financially,  or  from  manufacturers  and  various  public 
officials. 

It  seems  that  originally,  the  low  returns  obtained  for  fiber  flax  from 
the  producer’s  point  of  view  ($45  to  $60  an  acre)  have  been  due  to  the 
competition  with  the  cheap  fiber  of  Russia.  While  prices  are  now 
favorable  until  some  adjustment  in  the  Russian  situation  occurs  any 
extensive  investment  in  the  flax  fiber  industry  in  this  country  is  ex- 
tremely hazardous. 

SoKGHUM  Crop  Increases 

An  industry  which  was  practically  forgotten  a few  years  ago  has 
been  revived  and  keen  interest  is  at  present  being  displayed  in  the 
production  of  sorghum  syrup.  The  acreage  in  1920  was  increased  25 
per  cent  over  that  in  1919.  The  Wisconsin  Sorghum  Order  of  the 
Experiment  Association  was  formed  in  1919  to  improve  the  varieties  of 
sorghum;  to  collect  information  relative  to  manufacturing  sorghum 
syrup,  and  to  introduce  time  and  labor  saving  equipment  and  better 
methods  of  manufacture. 

Two  prominent  varieties  which  have  been  given  special  attention, 
Dodgeville  and  Mazo  Amber,  have  shown  very  encouraging  results. 
While  emphasis  in  the  selection  of  seed  has  thus  far  been  laid  upon 


92 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


early  maturity,  purity,  freedom  from  branching,  and  the  like,  Mr. 
Wright  is  now  working  on  a strain  which  will  be  high  in  syrup  pro- 
duction. The  total  solids  rather  than  the  sugar  content  determines  the 
amount  of  syrup,  and  plants  selected  this  fall  showed  a variation  in 
solids  content  of  the  two  varieties  ranging  between  17  and  22  per  cent. 

The  greatest  limitation  to  the  further  development  of  the  industry 
is  the  poor,  inefficient  mills  which  fail  to  extract  a high  percentage  of 
the  juice  and  in  the  “boiling  down”  process  give  a poor  quality  product. 
While  present  fluctuating  prices  of  syrup  would  make  it  inadvisable 
to  encourage  the  growth  of  small  mills,  the  high  powered  crushers  and 
efficient  mills  will  be  able  to  grow  and  secure  profitable  returns  on  their 
investments. 


ITG.  38.— WISCONSIN  NEEDS  BETTER  SOROHUM  MILLS 
While  a good  quality  of  syrup  may  be  made  in  this  type  of  mill,  the  more  modem 
steam  mill  is  much  more  economical  and  eflQcient, 


Germination  Influenced  by  Stage  of  Maturity 

During  adverse  seasons  it  is  often  necessary  to  select  seed  corn  be- 
fore the  crop  has  actually  reached  the  proper  stage  of  maturity  and 
extreme  difficulty  may  be  experienced  in  obtaining  good  seed. 

Trials  conducted  by  H.  W.  Albertz  (Agronomy)  showed  that  corn 
gathered  two  weeks  before  the  regular  harvesting  time;  i.  e.,  when  the 
kernels  were  just  beginning  to  dent,  germinated  just  as  well  or  better 
than  that  gathered  at  the  regular  harvest  providing  it  was  properly 
cured  with  artificial  heat.  Corn  at  that  time  contains  about  50  per 
cent  of  moisture  and  unless  proper  care  is  taken  it  will  fail  to  germinate 
and  the  seed  corn  will  be  lost. 

After-Ripening  of  Cereals 

Several  years  ago  it  was  found  that  winter  wheat  sent  out  imme- 
diately after  ripening  in  many  cases  would  not  give  a germinating 


New  Farm  Facts 


93 


test  of  more  than  20  or  30  per  cent.  Conseauently,  the  seed  would 
lie  dormant  in  the  ground  several  weeks  before  it  sprouted,  evidently 
requiring  a short  period  of  hibernation  before  growth  of  the  seed 
actually  began. 

A.  L.  Stone  (Agronomy)  began  an  investigation  of  tlie  difficulty  and 
was  later  assisted  by  G.  T.  Harrington  (U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture). 
Artificial  dry  heat  applications  resulted  in  an  average  germination  at 
the  end  of  five  days  on  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  of  95,  98,  and  99  per 
cent,  respectively,  while  the  samples  which  had  not  been  artificially 
dried  gave  germination  tests  of  only  78,  85,  and  29  per  cent  for  the 
same  grains.  In  the  drying  process  the  percentage  of  water  was  reduced 
from  approximately  12i  per  cent  to  6 per  cent,  indicating  that  part  of 
the  curing  process  is  concerned  with  the  loss  of  water  from  the  seed. 

Removal  of  the  distal  (square)  end  of  the  seed  leaving  only  that 
portion  containing  the  embryo  (germ)  resulted  in  a shortening  of  the 
germination  period  remarkably.  The  treated  wheat  gave  a test  of  100 
per  cent  germination  (although  the  embryo  moulded  badly)  in  3 days 
and,  the  untreated  wheat  gave  a test  of  56  per  cent. 

Scratching  the  seed  coats  close  to  the  embryo  and  dipping  them  in  a 
bath  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  from  three  to  five  minutes  were 
also  very  successful,  but  as  tedious  as  the  others.  Germination  of  the 
seeds  at  temperatures  of  from  48°  F.,to  69°  P.  gave  good  results,  while 
an  increase  in  temperature  was  marked  by  a lowering  of  the  germina- 
tion power  of  the  seeds. 

The  problem  presents  peculiar  difficulty  in  the  case  of  winter  wheat 
and  winter  rye.  While  barley  and  oats  require  the  same  ripening, 
they  are  not  sown  until  spring,  at  which  time  they  have  completed 
the  process. 

The  use  of  low  temperatures  is  undoubtedly  the  most  useful  as 
well  as  the  best  method  of  securing  results,  but  it  still  requires  prac- 
tical application. 


94 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Technical  Articles 

Much  of  the  technical  scientific  output  of  the  experiment  staff  is 
first  presented  to  the  scientific  public  through  the  medium  of  the  science 
periodicals  and  publications  of  scientific  societies.  The  publication  of 
such  matter  enables  our  workers  to  have  their  results  scrutinized  by 
their  scientific  colleagues.  The  following  articles  have  been  published 
during  the  past  year,  ending  June  30,  1920. 

Bachinann,  Freda  M.  Vitamine  requirements  of  certain  yeasts.  Jour. 
Biol.  Chem.  39:  235-257.  1919. 

Beach,  B.  A.  Necrophorus  infection  of  swine.  Proc.  Wis.  Vet.  Med. 
Assn.  1920:  61-64. 

Buell,  Mary  V.  Studies  in  blood  regeneration;  1.  Effect  of  hemorrhage 
on  alkaline  reserve.  2.  Effect  of  hemorrhage  on  nitrogen  metabolism. 
Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  40:  29-77.  1919. 

Clevenger,  C.  B.  Hydrogen-ion  concentration  of  plant  juices.  Soil  Sci- 
ence S:  217-226.  1919. 

Davis,  Marguerite.  Value  of  feeding  experiments.  Jour.  Home  Econ. 
12:  206-208.  1920. 

Davis,  Marguerite  and  collaborators.  Observations  on  vitamine  content 
of  foods.  Journ.  Home  Econ.  12:  209-216.  1920. 

Dickson,,  J.  G.  and  Bennett,  J.  P.  The  Bouidillon  water  still.  Science 
50:397-98.  1919. 

Fred,  E.  B.,  Peterson,  W.  H.,  and 'Davenport,  Audrey.  Acid  fermentation 
of  xylose.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  39:  347-384.  1919. 

Fred,  E.  B.  and  Graul,  E.  J.  Effect  of  inoculation  and  lime  on  the  yield 
and  on  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  soybeans  on  acid  soil.  Soil  Science 
7:  455-467.  1919. 

Fred,  E.  B.,  Feterson,  W.  H.,  and  Davenport,  Audrey.  Fermentation 
characteristics  of  certain  pentose-destroying  bacteria.  Jour.  Biol. 
Chem.  42:  175-189.  1920. 

Gibbs,  W.  M.  The  isolation  and  study  of  nitrifying  bacteria.  Soil  Sci- 
ence 8:  427-481.  1919. 

Haas,  A.  R.  C.  Studies  on  the  reaction  of  plant  juices.  Soils  Science 
9:341-369.  1920. 

Haas,  A.  R.  C.  The  electrometric  titration  of  plant  juices.  Soils  Science 
9:  4871491.  1919. 

Hadley,  F.  B.  Bacterial  therapy  in  genital  infections  of  cattle.  North 
Am.  Vet.  1:  62-66.  1920. 

Hadley,  F.  B.  Collecting  and  shipping  veterinary  specimens  for  labora- 
tory examination.  Proc.  Wis.  Vet.  Med.  Assn.  1920:  64-76. 

Hart,  E.  B.  and  Humphrey,  G.  C.  Gan  “home  grown  rations’’  supply 
proteins  of  adequate  quality  and  quantity  for  high  milk  production. 
Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  38:  515.  1919. 

Hart,  E.  B.  and  Steenbock,  H.  Maintenance  and  reproduction  with  grains 
and  grain  products  as  the  sole  dietary.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  39:  209. 
1919. 

Hart,  E.  B.  and  Steenbock,  H.  At  what  level  do  the  proteins  of  milk 
become  effective  supplements  to  the  protein  of  a cereal  grain.  Jour, 
Biol.  Chem.  42:  167.  1920. 

Hastings,  E.  G.  Moldy  butter  and  its  prevention.  Ann.  Rpt.  Wis,  But- 
termakers’  Assn.  1920:  99-105. 

Hastings,  E.  G.  The  methylene  blue  reduction  test,  A simple  way  of 
determining  the  number  of  bacteria  in  milk.  Hoard’s  Dairyman. 
40:  280.  1920. 

Hibbard,  B.  H.  Marketing  as  a problem  for  farm  demonstrators.  Jour. 
Farm  Econ.  2:  194-199.  1920.  * 


New  Farm  Facts 


95 


Ibsen,  H,  L.  Tricolor  inheritance,  IV:  The  triple  allelomorphic  series 

in  guinea-pig-s.  Genetics  4:  597-606.  1919. 

Ibsen,  H,  L.  Linkage  in  rats.  Amer.  Nat.  54:  61-67.  1920. 

Johnson,  A.  G.,  Byars,  L.  P,,  and  Leukel,  R.  W.  The  wheat  nematode 
tylenchus  tritici  attacking  rye,  oats,  spelt,  and  emmer.  Phytopath. 
9:  283-284.  1919. 

Johnson,  A.  G.,  and  Humphrey,  H.  B.  Take-all  and  flag  smut — two 
wheat  diseases  new  to  the  United  States.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers’ 
Bui.  1063.  1919. 

Johnson,  A.  G,  and  Atanasoff,  D.  Treatment  of  cereal  seeds  by  dry  heat. 
Jour.  Agr.  Research  18:  379-390.  1920. 

Johnson,  A.  G.  and  Mackie,  W.  W.  Evidence  of  disease  resistance  in 
barley  to  attacks  of  rhyncosporium.  Phytopath.  10:  54.  1920. 

Johnson,  A.  G.,  Dickson,  J.  G.,  and  Johann,  Helen.  An  epidemic  of 
fusarium  blight  (scab)  of  wheat  and  other  cereals.  Phytopath. 
10:  51.  1920. 

Johnson,  A.  G.  and  Haskell,  R.  J.  Diseases  of  cereal  and  forage  crops 
in  the  United  States  in  1919.  Plant  Disease  Bui.  Supp.  8.  May,  1920. 

Jones,  E.  R.  An  Extension  Project  in  Land  Drainage.  Rept.  Am.  Soc. 
Agr.  Eng.  1920. 

Jones,  L.  R.  and  McKinney,  H.  H.  The  infection  of  soil  temperature  on 
the  development  of  potato  scab.  Phytopath.  10:  63.  1920. 

Jones,  L.  R.,  Walker,  J.  C.,  and  Tisdale,  W.  B.  Fifth  progress  report 
on  fusarium  resistant  cabbage.  Phytopath,  10:  64.  1920, 

Jones,  L.  R.  and  Miller,  Maude.  Frost  necrosis  of  tulip  leaves.  Phyto- 
path. 9:^475-476.  1919. 

Jones,  Sarah  V.  H.  and  Rouse,  J.  E.  The  relation  of  age  of  dam  to  ob- 
served fecundity  in  domesticated  animals,  I:  Multiple  births  in 

cattle  and  sheep.  Jour.  Dairy  Science  3:  260-290.  1920. 

Keitt,  G,  W.  A preliminary  report  on  apple  scab  and  its  control  in 
Wisconsin.  Phytopath.  10:  58.  1920, 

Koehler,  A.  E.  A new  N/1  calomel  electrode  design.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem. 
41:  619.  1920. 

Koehler,  A.  E.  Modification  of  the  Van  Slyke  method  for  determining 
arginine.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  42:  267.  1920. 

Krueger,  Jean.  A comparative  study  of  home  economics  courses  in  col- 
leges. Jour.  Home  Econ.  12:  249-252.  1920, 

Marlatt,  Abby  L.  Unification  of  subject  matter  in  teacher  training 
courses,  vocational  home  economics,  extension  work,  and  research. 
Proc.  Assn.  Am.  Agj.  Col.  and  Expt.  Sta.  1919:  189-201. 

Morrison,  F.  B.  A comparison  of  feeding  standards  for  dairy  cattle. 
Proc.  Am,  Soc.  Animal  Production  1917  to  1919. 

Morrison,  F.  B.  and  Bohstedt,  G.  Barley  and  dairy  by-products  for 
swine  feeding.  Proc.  Am.  Soc.  Animal  Production  1917  to  1919. 

I’eterson,  W.  H.  and  Fred,  E.  B.  The  role  of  pentose  fermenting  bacteria 
in  the  production  of  corn  silage.  Jour.  Biol,  Chem.  41:181-186. 
1920. 

T’eterson,  W.  H.  and  Fied,  E.  B.  Fermentation  of  fructose  by  lacto- 
bajcillus  pentoaceticuH,  N.  Sp.  Jour,  Biol.  Chem.  41:  431-450.  1920. 

Peterson,  W.  H.  and  Fred,  E.  B.  The  fermentation  of  glucose  galactose 
and  mannose  by  lactobacillus  pentoaceticus,  N.  Sp.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem. 
42:273-287.  1920.  • 

Steenbock,  H.  and  Gross,  E.  G.  Fat  soluble  vitamino,  H:  The  fat  sol- 

uble vitamine  content  of  roots,  together  with  somo  observations  of 
their  water  soluble  vitamine  content.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  40:  501, 
1919. 

Steenbock.  H.  and  Bout  well.  P.  W.  Fat  soluble  vitajuine,  HI:  The  com- 

parative nutritive  value  of  white  and  yellow  maizes.  Jour.  Biol. 
Chem,  41 ; 81.  1920. 


96 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


Steenbock,  H.  and  Gross,  E.  G.  Fat  soluble  vitamine,  IV:  The  fat 

soluble  vitamine  content  of  green  plant  tissues  together  with  some 
observations  of  their  water  soluble  vitamine  content.  Jour.  Biol. 
Chem.  41;  149.  1920. 

Steenbock,  H.  and  Boutwell,  P.  W.  Fat  soluble  vitamine,  V:  Thermo- 

stability of  the  fat  soluble  vitamine  in  plant  materials.  Jour.  Biol. 
Chem.  41:  163.  1920. 

Steenbock,  H.  and  Boutwell,  P.  W.  Fat  soluble  vitamine:  The  ex- 

tractability  of  the  fat  soluble  vitamine  from  carrots,  alfalfa,  and 

yellow  corn  by  fat  solvents.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  42;  131.  1920. 

Swenehart,  John.  TNT  a war  salvaged  explosive  for  peace-time  pur- 
poses. Congressional  Record  Document  720.  1920. 

Tisdale,  W.  B.  Iris  leaf  spot  caused  by  Didymellina  iridis.  Phytopath. 
10;  1^48-163.  1920. 

Tisdale,  W.  B.  The  relation  of  soil  temperature  and  soil  moisture  to 
the  occurrence  of  cabbage  yellows.  Phytopath.  lO;  63.  1920. 

Walker,  J.  C.  and  Tisdale,  W.  B.  Observations  on  seed  transmission  of 
the  cabbage  black  rot  organism.  Phytopath.  10;  175-177.  1920. 

Walker,  J.  C.  Onion  diseases  and  their  control.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farm- 
ers’ Bui.  1060.  1919. 

Walker,  J.  C.  Occurrence  and  control  of  black  leg  of  cabbage.  Phyto- 
path. 10;  6^4.  1920. 

Walker,  J.  C.  Experiments  upon  formaldehyde-drip  control  of  onion 
smut.  Phytopath.  10:  323-327.  1920. 

Wengel,  Edith,  Denton,  Minna,  and  Pritchett,  Louise.  Fat  absorption  in 
frying.  Jour.  Home  Econ.  12:  111-127.  1920. 

Whitson,  A.  R.,  Geib,  W.  J.,  Geib,  H.  V.,  and  Thompson,  Carl.  Soil  sur- 
vey of  Door  county.  Bui.  52-D  Wis.  Geol.  and  Nat.  Hist.  Survey. 
1920. 

Whitson,  A.  R.,  Geib,  W.  J.,  and  Dunnewald,  T.  J.  Soil  survey  of  Mil- 
waukee county.  Bui.  56-A  Wis.  Geol.  and  Nat.  Hist.  Survey.  1920. 
Wright,  A.  H.  Hemp  industry  of  America.  Am.  Seedsman  2;  25.  1920. 

Publications 

Thirteen  new  bulletins  and  two  reprints  as  well  as  three  research 
bulletins  and  one  new  and  one  reprinted,  poster  bulletin,  were  published 
by  the  ‘ Experiment  Station.  The  Extension  Service  issued  12  new 
circulars  of  information  and  three  reprints. 

The  following  is  a brief  digest  of  the  bulletins  printed  during  the 
year: 

POPULAR  BULLETINS 

Bulletin  304. — Stem  Rust  of  Grains  and  the  Barberry  in  Wisconsin. 
(A.  G.  Johnson  and  James  G.  Dickson).  An  explanation  of  the  relation 
of  the  tall  or  common  barberry  to  stem  rust  of  grains. 

Bulletin  305. — Wheat  Growing  in  Wisconsin.  (E.  J.  Delwiche  and 
B.  D.  Leith).  A discussion  on  the  varieties  of  wheat  best  adapted  to 
Wisconsin  and  care  and  management  of  the  crop. 

Bulletin  306. — The  Soils  of  Northern  Wisconsin.  (A.  R.  Whitson,  T.  J. 
Dunnewald,  and  Carl  Thompson).  One  chapter  is  devoted  to  each  of 
the  ten  principal  soils  in  Wisconsin,  and  a short  treatise  is  given  on 
climate. 

Bulletin  307. — The  Rural  Community  Fair.  (C.  J.  Galpin  and  Emily  F. 
Hoag).  If  organized  and  managed  efficiently,  a community  fair  is  a 
community  asset. 


New  Farm  Facts 


97 


Bulletin  308. — Alfalfa  in  Wisconsin,  (R.  A.  Moore  and  L.  F.  Graber). 
A discussion  on  planting-  and  cutting  of  alfalfa  for  hay.  It  resists 
drouth,  eradicates  weeds,  and  improves  the  soil. 

Bulletin  309. — Marsh  Soils  (A.  R.  Whitson  and  H.  W.  Ullsperger). 
How  to  manage  marsh  soils  successfully,  including  the  subject  of 
adaptation  of  crops. 

Bulletin  310. — The  Pea  Moth;  How  to  Control  it.  (C.  L.  Fluke,  Jr.). 
Methods  of  control  of  the  pea  moth,  which  is  seriously  threatening  the 
pea  industry  in  the  Door  County  peninsula  and  adjoining  parts  of  the 
state. 

Bulletin  311. — Sorghum  for  Syrup  in  Wisconsin.  (A.  H.  Wright), 
There  is  an  active  demand  for  sorghum  which  is  not  satisfied.  Produc- 
tion could  well  be  increased  to  meet  this  demand. 

Bulletin  312. — Testing  Soils  for  Acidity.  (Emil  Truog).  Acidity  in 
soils  is  the  most  important  soil  problem  in  the  state.  A description  of 
the  Truog  test  for  soil  acidity  and  how  it  is  used. 

Bulletin  313. — The  Occurrence  of  Red  Calves  in  Black  Breeds  of 
Cattle.  (Leon  J,  Cole  and  Sarah  V.  H.  Jones).  An  explanation  of  in- 
heritance of  color  in  cattle — a practical  breeding  problem. 

Bulletin  314. — Wisconsin  Livestock  Shipping  Associations  (B.  H.  Hib- 
bard, L.  G.  Foster,  and  D.  G.  Davis).  Methods  of  organizing  shipping 
associations  in  order  to  increase  profits,  together  with  a history  of 
Wisconsin  shipping  associations. 

Bulletin  315. — Buttermilk  Cheese  and  Cottage  Cheese:  Their  Manufac- 
ture and  Sale.  (J.  L.  Sammis).  Ways  of  making  cottage  cheese  and 
buttermilk  cheese. 

Bulletin  316. — Farm  Labor  in  Wisconsin  (H.  C.  Taylor  and  J,  D. 
Black).  A thorough  discussion  of  the  problem  of  securing  and  retaining 
labor  on  the  farm. 


RESEARCH  BULLETINS 

Research  Bulletin  45. — The  Common  Cabbage  Worm  in  Wisconsin 
(H.  F.  Wilson).  Life  history  of  the  cabbage  worm  and  results  of 
experiments  with  remedies  for  its  control. 

Research  Bulletin  46. — Frost  Necrosis  of  Potato  Tubers.  (L.  R,  Jones, 
M.  Miller,  and  E.  Bailey),  The  effect  of  freezing  on  potatoes  by  pro- 
ducing frost  necrosis.  This  means  that  only  a part  of  the  tuber  may  be 
frozen  and  the  rest  will  appear  normal  externally. 

Research  Bulletin  47. — Farm  Leasing  Systems  in'  Wisconsin.  (B.  H. 
Hibbard  and  J.  D.  Black).  A description  of  the  various  types  of  leases 
used  in  Wisconsin  with  a few  facts  bearing  on  the  question  of  tenancy. 


98 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  323 


The  Wisconsin  Agricijltura.l  Experiment  Station,  in  Account 
With  the  United  States  Appropriation 


1919-20 

Dr. 

Cr. 

To  receipt  from  treasurer  of  the  United  States,  as  per  ap- 
propriation for  the  year  ending  June  30. 1920,  under  the 
acts  of  Congress  approved  March  2,  1887,  and  March  16, 
1906  

$30,000.00 

$20,838.73 

4,864.77 

126.07 
21.12 

6.97 

279.15 

345.07 
573.02 
101.61 

1,777.72 

4.15 

292.47 

59.76 

537.84 

188.85 
2.70 

$30,000.00 

Ry  labor 

By  publications 

By  postage  and  stationery 

By  freight  and  express 

By  heat,  light,  water  and  power 

By  chemicals  and  laboratory  supplies 

By  seeds,  plants,  and  sundry  suppliess 

By  fertilizers 

By  feeding  stuffs 

• 

By  library 

By  tools,  machinery  and  appliances 

By  furniture  and  fixtures 

By  scientific  apparatus  and  specimens 

R\7  travplinor  pvnp.nsps ! 

By  buildings  and  land I 

Total 1 $30,000.00 

1 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


'he  President  of  the  University  J.  A.  James,  Asst.  Dean. 

[.  L. 'Russell,  Dean  and  Director  K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Extension  Service 

’.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Station 


v".  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
. M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chemistry 


'.  A.  AusT,  Horticulture 
. A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 
-.  Bohstedt,  Animal  Husbandry 
I.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 
. J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 

. G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 
'.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 
. H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy  Husbandry 
. B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
A J.  Geib,  Soils 
. M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
. F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

. B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterinary  Science 
G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry 
. N.  Harmer,  Soils 

. B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chemistry 
. G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Bacteriology 
. S.  Hban,  Librarian 

. H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Economics 
. W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of  Agr.  Jour- 
nalism 

. S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 
. C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Animal  Husbandry 
A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Education 
. G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 
Johnson,  Horticulture 
. R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Engineering 
. R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pathology 
. W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 
. Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
. J.  Kraus,  Plant  Pathology  * 

D.  Leith,  Agronomy 
W.  Lindstrom,  Genetics 
. Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 

3BY  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home  Economics 
G.  Milward,  Horticulture 
G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticulture 
. A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 
. B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 
. B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 
L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
HFFiTH  Richards,  Soils 
. H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 


J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 

H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 

H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 

H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 

A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 

W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 

J.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering  (Bayfield) 

W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughn,  Plant  Pathology 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic  Entomol- 
ogy 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 

Freda  M.  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

Marguerite  Davis,  Home  Economics 

J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

J.  I.  Hambleton,  Economic  Entomology 

E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

J.  H.  Kolb,  Agr.  Economics 

Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  Journalism 

E.  J.  Malloy,  Soils 

S.  W.  Mendum,  Agr.  Economics 

E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  C.  Thomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 

W.  B.  Tisdale,  Plant  Pathology 


J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Chemistry  and  Bacteriology 

R.  M.  Bethke,  Genetics 

I Ruth  Bitterman,  Plant  Pathology 
O.  R.  'Brunkow,  Agr.  Chemistry 

S.  Epstein,  Agr.  Chemistry 
C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 

0.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 
A.  E.  Koehler,  Agr.  Chemistry 
S.  Lepkovsky,  Agr.  Chemistry 

1.  L.  Lush,  Genetics 

R.  O.  Nafziger,  Agr.  Journalism 
Mariana  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 
P.  W.  Senn,  Genetics 
W.  S.  Smith,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 

J.  H.  VerHulst,  Agr.  Chemistry 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
MADISON 

COOPERATING  WITH  WISCONSIN  DIVISION  OF  MARKETS 


DIGEST 


Retail  stores  are  essential  because  consumers  desire  and  demand 
the  services  they  render.  Pages  5-7 

Consumers  do  not  all  desire  the  same  kind  of  retail  serAuces  and 
resent  the  necessity  of  paying  for  certain  services  when  they  are 
not  utilized.  Page  7 

Margins  receiAed  by  retailers  differ  greatly  on  various  goods  be- 
cause buying  and  selling  prices  fluctuate.  These  fluctuations  are  un- 
avoidable under  present  conditions.  Furthermore,  different  margins 
are  justifled  by  the  character  of  goods  handled  and  by  the  serAuces 
rendered  for  consumers.  Pages  7—9 

Retail  stores  Aary  extremely  in  size.  Pages  9 and  12-13 

Retailers  of  food  received  margins  of  15  to  16  cents  out  of  each 
dollar’s  worth  of  goods  sold  during  1919.  Operating  expenses  took 
from  11.7  cents  to  12.3  cents  on  an  average,  while  balances  average 
2.5  cents  to  4'.5  cents.  Pages  10-11 

The  larger  stores  operated  at  loAAcr  costs  than  small  stores. 

Pages  11  and  14 

The  important  opei*atmg  expenses  of  retail  food  stores  in  order 
of  importance  were  for  labor,  delivery  service,  and  rent. 

Pages  14-16 

Madison  food  retailei*s  did  not  profiteer  in  1919.  They  were  strictly 
competitive  and  even  the  best  did  not  receive  exorbitant  salaries  or 
profits.  The  majority  of  stores  were  so  small  that  storekeepers  fre- 
quently did  not  make  even  day  wages.  Pages  16-17 

The  present  food  retail  system  is  inefficient  because  the  majority 
of  stores  are  too  small  to  be  efficient  either  in  operation  or  as  com- 
petitors of  large  stores.  Pages  19-20 


Food  must  be  handled  by  efficient  stores  only  if  retailing  is  to  be 
imprOA-ed.  Pages  20-21  and  12-13 


What  the  Retailer  Does  With  the 
Consumer’s  Dollar^ 

Theodore  Macklin  and  P.  E.  McNael  ’ 

Just  so  long  as  small,  inefficient  stores  remain  in  business 
consumers  need  not  expect  to  obtain  foods  and  retail  services 
at  lower  costs.  This  is  true  because  small  stores  can  neither 
buy  goods  to  advantage  nor  reduce  operating  expenses.  While 
present  margins  barely  cover  the  expenses  of  small  stores,  they 
do  provide  profits  for  stores  large  enough  to  buy  efficiently 
and  to  reduce  expenses.  Contrary  to  public  belief,  it  is  the  ex- 
cessive costs  of  small,  inefficient  stores  that  make  present  mar- 
gins necessary.  Those  stores  that  make  profits  do  so  not  by 
increasing  their  margins  but  by  reducing  their  costs.  Volume 
of  business  is  the  first  step  necessary  to  bring  increased  ef- 
ficiency. Among  small  stores,  increased  volume  of  business  can 
be  accomplished  only  by  consolidation.  If  they  are  not  con- 
solidated, improvement  of  retailing  requires  their  elimination. 

Seven  Million  Dollar  Food  Bill 

The  city  of  Madison,  Wisconsin,  numbering  45,000  residents 
and  students  combined,  requires  a food  supply  for  the 
equivalent  of  about  9,000  families  each  year.  The  average 
American  family  spends  fully  38  per  cent  of  its  income  for 
food^.  Assuming  that  Madison  families  average  an  income  of 
$2,000  per  year,  approximately  $6,840,000  worth  of  groceries 
and  meats  including  milk  are  consumed  in  the  city  annually. 
That  this  figure  is  not  far  from  correct  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  79  retail  food  stores,  or  virtually  one-half  of  those  in  the 
city,  sold  $3,326,896  worth  of  food  during  1919.  At  this  rate 

\ To  obtain  complete  facts  covering:  both  sides  of  the  consumer-retailer  situation,  the 
Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  cooperating  with  the  Wisconsin  Division  of 
Markets,  and  hacked  hy  the  Madison  Association  of  Commerce,  conducted  a careful 
Investigation.  ITie  re.‘«ults  are  presented  in  this  bulletin. 

® U.  S.  Dept,  of  Labor— Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.  Monthly  Labor  Review,  Vol.  X, 
No.  1,  p.  98. 


'4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  324 


it  is  estimated  that  a total  of  $6,738,000  worth  of  foods  were 
sold  by  the  full  number  of  160  stores. 

In  collecting  information  from  the  various  storekeepers  it 
was  found  that  the  majority  keep  no  adequate  set  of  books. 
Consequently,  less  than  one-half  of  the  stores  were  able  to 
furnish  definite  facts  as  to  the  costs  of  operation  and  the  size 
of  gross  margins.  To  promote  brevity  in  the  discussion  of 
the  facts  obtained  certain  terms  require  definition. 

]\Ieanings  of  Technical  Terms 

Buying  Price.  This  is  the  price  retailers  pay  to  farmers, 
wholesalers,  or  others  for  the  products  handled  in  retail  stores. 
Since  retailers  buy  mostly  from  wholesalers  this  term  indi- 
cates primarily  prices  paid  to  wholesalers  by  retailers. 

Selling  Price.  This  is  the  price  retailers  charge  consumers 
for  goods.  It  covei’s  all  articles  sold,  whether  they  are  car- 
ried home  by  the  consumer  or  delivered  by  the  retailer. 
Furthermore,  it  is  immaterial  whether  the  goods  are  paid  for 
in  cash  or  charged. 

Operating  Margin.  This  refers  to  the  number  of  cents  out 
of  each  dollar  paid  by  the  consumer  which  the  retailer  does  not 
pay  out  in  buying  goods.  Operating  margin,  in  other  words,  is 
the  difference  between  the  money  taken  in  for  all  goods  sold 
and  the  money  paid  as  buying  prices  for  these  same  goods. 
The  percentage  margin,  usually  means  something  different  to  re- 
tailers than  to  consumers.  Consumers  think  of  the  margin  as  a 
percentage  added  to  the  wholesale  price,  retailers  think  of  their 
margin  as  a certain  percentage  of  the  selling  price.  The  con- 
sumer, for  example,  would  say  that  an  article,  costing  the  re- 
tailers 75  cents  and  selling  to  the  consumers  for  one  dollar  rep- 
resents a margin  of  33  1/3  per  cent.  This  conclusion  is  reached 
by  saying  that  25  cents  added  to  75  cents  is  an  addition  of 
one-third  to  the  wholesale  price.  The  retailer  on  the  contrary, 
sells  at  a competitive  price  regardless  of  what  his  buying  price 
may  have  been.  He  figures  cost  in  terms  of  what  he  gets  in- 
stead of  in  terms  of  what  he  pays.  He  calculates  that  25  cents 
represents  only  one-fourth  of  his  selling  price.  The  operat- 
ing margin,  as  used  in  this  discussion,  will  always  refer  to  a 
proportion  of  the  selling  price  and  not  to  a figure  which  is 
added  to  a wholesale  price.  It  will  refer  to  the  25  cents  re- 


■\Yhat  the  Retailer  Does  With  the  Consumer’s  Dollar  5 


ceived  by  the  retailer  paying  75  cents  and  selling  for  one 
dollar  as  a margin  of  25  cents  and  in  this  case  also  a 25  per 
cent  margin. 

Operating  expense.  This  refers  to  every  conceivable  kind 
of  expense  or  cost  which  a retailer  must  meet  in  his  business, 
Avith  the  following  exceptions  only:  (1)  salary,  wages,  or 

other  compensation  to  the  storekeeper  or  manager,  who  runs 
the  business;  (2)  vrages  or  other  compensation  to  members  of 
the  OAvner’s  family,  avIio  Avork  Avithout  receiAung  pay;  (3)  in- 
terest on  the  iiwestment  in  fixtures,  stock  of  goods,  or  other 
essentials  to  the  grocery  business. 

It  AAms  necessary  to  make  this  dmsion  of  expense  and  to  ex- 
clude from  operating  expense  the  three  exceptions  named 
above,  because  of  the  Amriety  of  Avays  in'  AARich  these  items 
Avere  paid,  and  the  fact  that  in  many  cases  they  were  not  paid 
at  all. 

Balance.  This  means  the  portion  of  the  retailer’s  income 
left  after  paying  for  all  goods  bought  and  meeting  operating 
expenses.  It  is  a fund  from  Avhich  the  following  expenditures 
must  be  made,  if  made  at  all:  (1)  compensation  for  the  serv- 

ices of  the  storekeeper  or  manager;  (2)  coirnensation  for  other- 
AAuse  unpaid  family  labor  of  storekeepers;  (3)  interest  on 
money  invested  in  the  retail  business;  (4)  profits,  and  (5) 
total  balance  must  also  include  the  value  of  goods  taken  for 
the  storekeeper’s  family  use,  but  not  paid  or  otherAvise  ac- 
counted for.  That  eight  stores  out  of  36  AA^hich  gave  reliable 
and  sufficient  information,  AA^ere  unable  to  make  any  balance 
at  all  and,  in  fact,  had  to  meet  deficits  ranging  from  $200  to 
$1,921  em])hasizcs  the  need  for  enough  efficiency  to  make 
money  Avith  Avhich  to  meet  these  remaining  items,  defined  as 
‘^Balance.” 

Retail  Services  Essential  to  Consumers 

• 

Retail  stores  are  operated  because  consumers  Avant  certain 
goods  and  services  Avhich  cannot  be  obtained  in  other  Avays  or 
Avhich  consumers  prefer  not  to  secure  by  different  means. 
Consumers  not  only  have  an  immense  A'ariety  of  AA^ants  but 
they  live  under  Avidely  varying  conditions.  The  retailer’s  op- 
portunity is  to  specialize  efficiently  in  supplying  consumers 
Avith  goods  that  meet  their  needs.  He  must  also  make  these 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  324 


goods  available  to  eonsinners  in  a manner  adjusted  to  tbeir 
various  living  and  working  conditions.  It  is  not  unfair  to 
say  that  retailers  in  Madison  have  not  completely  met  the  re- 
tail service  needs  of  all  consumers.  Neither  have  consumers 
tried  constructively  to  help  the  stores  in  solving  certain  dif- 
ficult problems.  While  the  retail  system  is  open  to  charges 
of  inefficiency  and  perhaps  delinquency  in  this  regard,  yet  re- 
tail distribution  is  essential. 

Eetail  services  are  essential  for  three  principal  reasons. 

(1)  Consumers  demand  a large  variety  of  food  products. 
These  come  from  widely  scattered  sections.  A consumer  de- 
voting ten  hours  a day  to  his  omi  work  cannot  obtain  oranges 
directly  from  California,  fiour  from  Minnesota,  beef  from  Iowa, 
pecans  from  Texas,  tea  from  China,  spices  from  the  tropics, 
and  numerous  other  products  from  all  over  this  country  and 
from  foreign  lands.  He  has  neither  the  time  nor  the  inclina- 
tion to  do  this.  Bringing  together  the  kind,  quantity  and 
quality  of  foods  which  meet  the  consumer’s  needs  on  a par- 
ticular day,  and  on  all  days,  is  one  of  the  services  which  the 
retailer  performs.  He  does  this  well  when  he  brings  to  the 
public  the  benefits  of  efficient  buying. 

(2)  Consumers  in  reality  are  producers  in  various  kinds  of 
work  in  wffiich  successful  specialization  leaves  little  or  no  time 
to  be  spent  in  regularly  going  to  market  and  bringing  home 
products  purchased.  The  working  hours  of  laborers  in  gen- 
eral, whether  in  factory  or  in  retail  establishment,  commence 
in  the  morning  and  close  at  night  at  so  nearly  the  same  time 
that  no  large  proportion  of  consumers  could  possibly  go  to 
market  regularly  for  food  purchases. 

(3)  Consumers  live  or  work  so  far  from  retail  stores  that  it 
is  impossible  for  them  either  to  reach  the  store  or  to  bring 
home  the  products  bought.  Consider  the  difficulty  of  going 
to  the  store  a half  mile  from  the  factory  and  returning  a mile 
home  for  supper  after  a ten-hour  day  of  work.  This  is  typical 
of  the  conditions  which  confront  most  consumers.  Such  things 
make  consumers  appreciate  retail  services  in  practice  if  not 
in  thought.  Every  woman  with  a family,  who  has  broken  into 
her  regular  morning  work  to  go  shopping,  knows  only  too  well 
how  much  time  and  energj^  it  takes  and  how  little  of  her  house- 
hold duties  she  accomplishes  on  such  days.  Women  have 


What  the  Ketailer  Does  With  the  Consumer’s  Dollar  7 


found  by  experience  that  the  services  of  the  retailer  save  both 
time  and  effort  which  they  can  devote  more  economically  and 
happily  to  other  things  than  shopping  for  food. 

Some  Retail  Services  Undeveloped 

In  catering  to  the  needs  of  consumers  in  response  to  popular 
demand,  retailers  have  done  well  in  some  things  but  have 
overlooked  others.  Products  have*  been  admirably  assembled 
from  producing  regions  everywhere,  but  not  all  retailers  by 
any  means  have  been  able  to  give  the  consumer  the  benefits 
of  efficient  buying  power.  In  delivering  products  ordered  by 
telephone  to  the  consumer’s  kitchen  and  in  extending  credit 
on  these  purchases,  the  retailer  has  been  exceedingly  help- 
ful. On  the  contrary,  the  consumer  who  has  called  at  the 
store,  selected  his  order,  paid  cash  and  carried  the  goods  away 
has  not  been  generally  favored  as  has  the  ^‘charge  and  de- 
livery” customer.  He  has  had  to  pay  for  delivery  and  credit 
service  not  received.  In  fact,  it  has  been  the  failure  to  meet 
all  of  the  reasonable  needs  of  consumers  which  induced  de- 
velopment of  specialized  stores  doing  a ^‘cash  and  carry”  busi- 
ness. While  a majority  of  consumers  cannot  regularly  pur- 
chase on  the  “cash  and  carry”  basis  there  always  will  be  a 
large  number  who  can  and  will.  Furthermore,  numerous  cus- 
tomers who  regularly  buy  goods  under  the  “charge  and  de- 
livery” system  frequently  give  their  orders  in  person,  pay  cash, 
and  carry  the  articles  home. 

Price  Variations  and  Retail  Margins 

The  retailer  is  in  business  to  make  a profit.  In  striving  for 
it  the  storekeeper  is  legally  competing  for  a reward  which  goes 
to  the  relatively  efficient  dealer  only.  The  truth  of  this  state- 
ment lies  in  the  fact  that  many  storekeepers  fail  to  make  wages, 
not  to  speak  of  profit.  To  make  a profit  requires  the  retailer 
not  only  to  buy  at  as  low  prices  as  competitive  conditions  per- 
mit, but  to  sell  for  as  high  prices  as  other  retailers  are  able 
to  secure  from  consumers.  In  addition  he  must  keep  operat- 
ing costs  at  a minimum.  Because  market  prices  change  from 
day  to  day  the  buffing  prices  for  retailers  arc  not  identical 
for  all.  Similarly,  consumers’  demands  fluctuate  so  that  like 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  324 


margins  on  the  same  kind  of  products  cannot  be  obtained  by 
all  retailers.  Neither  can  one  retailer  necessarily  secure  the 
same  margins  from  day  to  day  or  month  to  month.  Because 
prices  fluctuate,  there  are  periods  of  loss  and  periods  of  gain 
in  every  business.  When  apparent  shortage  causes  a higher 
price  level,  as  was  recently  the  case  in  the  sugar  market,  the 
retailer  Avho  had  previously  purchased  stocks  of  sugar  at  low 
prices  received  a high  margin  merely  because  he  asked  and 
received  the  current  competitive  sugar  price.  Regardless  of 
how  much  or  how  little  he  may  have  paid  for  his  supply,  his 
procedure  was  economically  justifiable.  Competition,  if  it 
works  at  all,  is  bound  to  make  prices  seek  the  same  level,  but 
not  necessarily  a lower  level,  all  political  and  popular  condem- 
nation of  the  principle  to  the  contrary. 


Table  I Margins^  Received  By  Retailers  on  Various  Commodities 

IN  1919 


Article 

Usual 

margin 

Highest 

margin 

1 Lowest 

margin 

Cream 

Per  cent 
8 

Per  cent 
20 

Per  cent 
! 8 

Butter 

7 to  10 

10 

! 8 

Flour 

7 to  10 

15 

3 

Eggs 

8 to  13 

i 18 

4 

Soap 

10  to  15 

1 20 

3 

Oleo 

11  to  15 

38 

9 

Fruit 

io  to  20 

‘ 35 

8 

Bread 

15  to  20 

! .4 

7 

Lard 

15  to  20 

i 25 

Cereals 

15  to  23 

i 25 

5 

Cheese 

20 

25 

5 

Coffee 

20 

30 

9 

Meats  canned 

20 

33 

12 

Meats— fresh 

20 

25 

17 

Bottled  goods 

20  to  25  1 

35 

10 

Canned  goods 

20  to  25 

33 

12 

Cookies 

20  to  25 

30 

5 

Tea 

20  to  25 

40 

15 

Candy 

25 

40 

20 

^ Marg’in  expressed  in  percentage  of  retailer’s  selling  price  to  consumer. 


"What  the  Retailer  Does  With  the  Consumer’s  Dollar  9 


Besides  price  fluctuation,  the  number  and  character  of  serv- 
ices rendered  and  the  costs  of  these  services  are  likely  to  ad- 
just margins  through  competition  to  a level  justifled  by  the 
character  of  services  rendered.  The  perishability  of  products 
and  many  other  factors  also  influence  the  width  of  margins. 
Slackening  of  demand  resulting  in  the  accumulation  of  perish- 
able vegetables  forces  a fall  in  price  because  greater  loss  would 
result  from  spoilage  than  from  selling  at  a price  enough  lower 
to  dispose  of  the  supply.  With  these  observations  in  mind  it 
is  of  interest  to  note  that  retailers  in  Madison  sold  foods  at 
prices  which  left  them  the  margins  shown  in  Table  I.  The  usual 
margins  received  ranged  from  7 to  25  per  cent  depending  upon 
various  conditions  or  characteristics  some  of  which  have  been 
noted. 

Extreme  Variation  in  Size  of  Retail  Stores 

A very  high  proportion  of  the  retail  food  stores  are  small. 

In  fact,  almost  four-fifths  of  the  stores  sell  less  than  $50,000 

worth  of  pixiducts  annually.  It  is  significant  that  almost  one 
half  of  the  seven  million  dollar  food  supply  of  the  city  is 
handled  by  these  small,  individual  concerns.  It  is  impressive 
on  the  other  hand  to  find  in  Table  II  that  five  stores,  repre- 
senting only  6.3  per  cent  of  the  stores  studied,  handled  one- 

third  of  the  aggregate  sales;  Avhile  one-fifth  of  the  stores  made 
more  than  one-half  of  the  total  sales.  The  size  of  stores  in  a 
very  important  way  affects  the  efficiency  of  retailing  as  will  be 
shoAvn  later. 


Table  II. — Sales  Made  by  79  Stores  in  1919 


Size  srroup 

Number 

stores 

Aggregate 

sales 

Average 
sales 
per  store 

Per  cent 
of 

Stores 

Per  cent  of 
aggregate 
sales 

Under  $10, 000 

8 

833,563.28 

84,195 

10.1 

1.0 

810,000,  under  820,000 

19 

250,864.19 

13,203 

24.0 

7.5 

$20,000,  under  830,000  

11 

262,402.97 

23,855 

14.0 

7.9 

830,000,  under  840. 000 

11 

383,991.61 

34,908 

14.0 

11.5 

840,000,  under  $.A0, 000 

14 

618,840.05 

44,203 

17.7 

18.6 

ST)0,000,  under  $60,000 

6 

316,651.85 

52,775 

7.6 

9,5 

860,000,  under  $100,000 

.7 

3.59, 312. .58 

1 

71,862 

6.3 

10.8 

8100,000  and  over 

T) 

1,101,270.37 

220,2.54 

6.3 

1 33.2 

Total 

79 

j 3,. 326, 896. 90 

42,113 

10  0.0 

1 100.0 

10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  324 


How  Retailers  Divide  the  Consumer's  Dollar 

More  than  four-fifths  of  the  consumer’s  dollar  was  paid  by- 
Madison  food  retailers  for  the  goods  which  consumers  bought. 
In  fact,  from  84  to  85  cents  was  expended  for  food  products 
by  the  average  retailer  out  of  each  dollar  paid  by  consumers. 
The  average  margin  received  by  retailers,  therefore,  was  about 
15  or  16  cents  on  each  dollar  of  sales.  The  costs  of  operating 
the  different  stores  varied  considerably  as  is  indicated  by 
figures  in  Tables  III  and  IV.  It  is  surprising  no  doubt  to 
find  that  the  large  stores  take  no  larger  margins  than  do  the 
small  retailers  and  that,  while  expenses  vary  considerably, 
the  balance  obtained  is  practically  the  same  per  dollar  of  sales 
for  large  as  for  smaller  stores.  The  average  operating  ex- 
penses were  from  11.7  cents  to  12.3  cents  for  each  dollar  paid 
by  consumers,  while  the  average  balances  made  were  from 
2.5  to  4.5  cents.  Comparisons  of  the  items  of  expense  in  the 
different  sizes  of  stores  may  be  made  by  reference  to  figures 
in  Tables  III  and  IV. 


Table  III, — Distribution  of  Consumer’s  Dollar  by  Sizes  of  Retail 
Stores  Making  Delivery 


Item  of  Expenditure 

Average 
for  all  17 
stores 

Average 
for  12  stores 
under  $50,  000 
sales 

Average  for 
3 stores 
$50,000  under 
$100,000  sales 

Average 
for  2 stores 
$100, 000  sales 
or  more 

Cents 

Cents 

Cents 

Cents 

Purchase  of  products 

85.2 

87.8 

85.7 

83.0 

Labor  inside  store 

5.3 

3.0 

4.5 

7.2 

Rent  of  building 

1.9 

1.8 

1.3 

2.3 

Merchandizing  supplies.. 

.6 

.5 

,7 

.6 

Bad  accounts 

.06 

.3 

.08 

.01 

Delivery  expenses 

2.3 

2.2 

2.5 

2.2 

Other  operating  expenses 

2.14 

2.2 

1.22 

1.69 

Balance 

2.5 

2.2 

4.0 

3.0 

Total  income  to  re- 
tailer or  the  amount 
paid  by  consumer, . . 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

AVhat  the  Retailer  Does  With  the  Consumer's  Dollar  11 


Table  IV Distribution  of  Consumer’s  Dollar  by  Sizes  of  Retail 

Stores  Not  Making  Delivery 


Item  of  expenditure 

Average 
for  all  20 
stores 

Average 
for  9 stores 
under 
$20,000 
sales 

Average  for 
7 stores 
$20,000 
under 
$.50,000 
sales 

Average  for 
2 stores 
$50,000 
under 
$100,000 
sales 

Average  for 
2 stores 
$100,000 
sales  or 
more 

Cents 

Cents 

Cents 

Cents 

Cents 

Purchase  of  products. 

83.8 

81.8 

82.0 

86.5 

83.7 

Labor  inside  store 

5.5 

3.9 

4.0 

5.7 

5.9 

Rent  of  building 

1.9 

3.9 

1.6 

1.4 

1.9 

Other  operating  ex- 

penses '■ 

4.3 

6.7 

6.2 

1.7 

2.9 

Balance 

4.5 

3.7 

6.2 

4.7 

3.6 

Total  income  to 

retailer  or  the 
amount  paid  by 

consumer 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

* Includes  expenses  con-esponding  to  merchandizing-  supplies  and  bad  accounts  in 
Table  III. 


Large  Stores  Have  Lower  Costs 

It  is  customary  among  small  stores  for  members  of  the  store- 
keeper’s family  to  give  their  help  at  various  times  without 
pay.  In  the  largest  stores  virtually  all  help  is  paid  for  in  cash. 
In  spite  of  this  hiding  of  part  of  the  real  expenses  of  the 
smaller  stores  their  costs  were  not  found  to  be  any  lower  than 
in  large  stores.  In  fact,  there  is  a rather  decided  tendency 

Table  V. — Average  Sales,  Margins,  Expenses  and  Balances  of 
37  Stores — 1919 


Size  of  store 

Number 
stores  1 

Average 

sales 

Average 

margin 

Average 
operat- 
ing ex- 
pense 

Aver  age 
balance 

Addi- 

tional 

income'*’ 

Total 

balance 

Under  $20,000 

9 

$11,686 

$2,133 

$1,703 

$430 

?257 

$687 

$20,000.  under 
$50,000 

19 

37,765 

5, 3.56 

4,011 

1,345 

305 

1,650 

$50,000,  under 
$100,000 

. 5 

64,008 

8,974 

6,238 

2,736 

190 

2,926 

$100,000  and  over  . , 

4 

247,317 

40,216 

32,. 594 

7,622 

none 

7,622 

All  stores 

37 

i 57,785 

8,930 

6,481 

1,989 

245 

2,234 

* Additional  Income  refers  to  the  estimated  value  of  {foods  taken  by  the  store 
keeper  for  family  use,  without  having:  an  account  to  cover  these  values.  It,  there- 
fore, represents  an  addition  to  the  storekeeper’s  calculated  balance.  It  is  a part  of 
his  actual  income  or  total  balance. 


12 


AViscoxsin  Bulletin  324 


FIG.  1.— EFFECT  OF  COMPETITION  ON  SIZES  OF  STORES 
Food  retail  stores  varied  from  pigmies  to  giants  in  their  annual  sales.  The  range  in 
size  and  eflBeiency  is  altogether  too  gi'eat. 


Each  black  bar  in  Figure  I represents  the  value  of  sales  dur- 
ing 1919  for  one  store.  The  shortest  bar  indicates  a store  selling 
less  than  $2,000  worth  of  food.  The  five  longest  bars  show 
that  five  stores,  each  selling  more  than  $100,000  worth  of  food, 
averaged  more  than  $200,000  sales.  Four-fifths  of  these  79 
stores  (63)  each  sold  less  than  $50,000  worth  of  food  in  1919. 
Most  of  them  are  too  small  and  inefficient  to  render  the  public 
the  service  which  is  desired  at  margins  that  would  both  please 
the  public  and  give  a profit  to  these  storekeepers.  Improvement 
in  retailing  requires  that  they  either  be  consolidated  or  elimin- 
ated. This  illustration  emphasizes  what  free  competition  does  in 
the  middleman  business.  The  weaknesses  of  competition  appar- 
ently are  not  being  overcome  either  by  the  initiative  of  middle- 
men or  by  the  so-called  solutions  of  legislative  action.  The  prob- 
ability is  that  these  wasteful  conditions  will  not  cease  until  the 
public  is  better  informed  and  buys  with  economic  judgment. 

The  number  of  stores  and  their  sales  volume  shown  in  Figure 
2 is  even  more  striking.  AVhile  the  eight  pigmy  stores  had  to 
have  wide  margins  to  meet  their  excessive  expenses,  and  even 
then  did  not  make  profits,  the  giant  stores  receiving  the  same 
prices  or  lower  ones  made  profits.  It  is  futile  to  expect  improve- 
ment in  retailing  so  long  as  conditions  remain  which  keep  these 
inefficient  stores  in  business. 


What  the  Retailer  Does  With  the  Consumer’s  Dollar  13 


NUMBER  OF  STORES 


DOLLARS 

225,000 


200,000 


150.000 


100,000 


50,000 


30,000 


10,000 


FIG.  2.— RELATION  OF  NUMJiKR  OF  STORKS  TO  VOLUME  OF  SALES 

One-.si.\teenth  of  ths  stones  (Ji<l  orif-thinl  of  the  busincs.s,  wliiio  four-fifths  did  less 

tlian  on(*-hulf. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  324 


for  costs  to  decrease  per  dollar  of  sales  in  the  larger  stores. 
The  figures  in  Tables  V and  VI  clearly  indicate  that  the  smallest 
stores  have  the  highest  operating  expenses.  Their  margins,  more- 
over, are  also  the  highest.  The  facts  seem  to  indicate,  contrary  to 
public  belief,  that  the  larger  stores  receive  margins  and  meet  op- 
erating expenses  amounting  to  no  more  per  dollar  of  sales  than 
the  margins  and  operating  expenses  of  the  smaller  stores.  The 
tendency  is  toward  lower  operating  costs  in  larger  stores. 
The  importance  of  this  fact  will  be  explained  later. 


Table  VI. — Average  Sales  and  Margins,  Expenses  and  Balances, 
IN  Percentage  of  Sales 


Size  of  store 

Number 

stores 

Average 

sales 

Margin  in 
per  cent 
of  sales 

Operati  n g 
expense  in 
per  cent 
of  sales 

Balance 
in  per 
cent 'of 
sales 

Under  $20,000 

9 

$11,686 

18.3 

14.6 

3.7 

$20,000,  under  550,000 

19 

37,765 

14.2 

10.6 

3.6 

550,000,  under  $100.000 

5 

64,008 

14.0 

9.8 

4.2 

$100,000  and  over 

4 

247.317 

16.2 

13.1 

' 3.1 

All  stores 

37 

57,785 

15.3 

11.8 

3.5 

1 

Labor  Cost  is  Largest  Eetail  Expense 

The  cost  of  labor  is  the  largest  single  item  of  expense  in 
retail  food  stores.  During  the  period  covered  by  the  study  it 
represented  from  one-quarter  to  two-fifths  of  the  total  margin 
received  by  storekeepers,  and  took  from  4.1  cents  to  6.8  cents 
out  of  each  dollar  paid  by  consumers.  In  Table  VII  figures 


Table  VII. — Comparative  Cost  of  Labor  in  Stores’ 


Size  of  store  I 

i 

N umber 
stores 

Expenditure 
for  labor 

Per  cent  of 
sales 

Per  cent  of 
margin 

Under  520.000 

7 

5670 

5.2 

27.7 

520.000,  under  550, 000  

19 

1 1,390 

4.2 

25.9 

550,000,  under  5100.000 

5 

j 2,636 

4.1 

29.4 

$100,000  and  over 

4 

1 16.903 

1 

6.8 

42.0 

1 Exclusive  of  labor  involved  in  delivering. 


What  the  Retailer  Does  With  the  Consumer’s  Dollar  15 


are  presented  which  indicate  that  the  larger  stores  have  higher 
labor  expense.  This,  however,  is  dne  to  the  fact  that  large 
stores  pay  for  all  their  help  while  most  of  the  small  stores  ex- 
ploit members  of  the  storekeeper’s  family  by  ntilizing  their 
time  without  paying  for  it. 


Delivery  Cost  is  Heavy  Expense 

The  second  most  important  retail  food  store  expense  is  that 
of  a delivery  system.  It  required  from  one-eighth  to  almost 
one-fifth  of  the  margins  obtained  by  retailers  and  represented 
from  2.2  cents,  to  2.5  cents  out  of  each  dollar  paid  by  con- 
sumers to  stores  operating  delivery  systems.  The  facts  in 
Table  VIII,  however,  indicate  that  it  costs  no  more  for  large 
stores  to  deliver  their  products  than  it  does  for  small  stores. 
Delivery  costs  were  about  constant  per  dollar  of  sales  for  all 
sizes  of  stores.  A large  proportion  of  the  small  stores,  however, 
do  not  maintain  delivery  systems  because  the  expense  cannot 
be  met.  * 


Table  Vlll. — ^Comparative  Delivery  Costs 


Size  of  store 

Number 

stores 

Expenditure 
for  deliver^’ 

Per  cent  of 
sales 

Per  cent  of 
margin 

Under  820,000  

820,000,  under  150,000  

12 

$871 

2.2 

18.2 

$50,000,  under  $100,000  

3 

1,645 

2.5 

17.3 

$100,000,  and  over 

2 

8,078 

2.2 

13.2 

Rent  is  Third  Important  Expense 

Approximately  one-eighth  to  one-fifth  of  the  margin  re- 
ceived by  retailers  was  spent  for  the  rent  of  the  building  and 
any  additional  warehouse  facilities  utilized  by  the  retail  enter- 
prise. Rent  took  from  1.2  cents  to  3.5  cents  out  of  each  dol- 
lar paid  by  consumers.  Small  stores,  according  to  the  figures 
in  Table  IX,  had  relatively  much  higher  rent  expense  per  dol- 
lar of  sales  than  large  stores. 


16 


Wiscoxsix  Bulletix  324 


Table  IX. — Comparative  Rent  Expense 


Size  of  Store 

! 

1 

Number 

stores 

Expenditure 
for  rent 

Per  cent  of 
sales 

Per  cent  of 
margin 

Under  ^20,000  

7 

$439 

3.5 

19.4 

$20,000,  under  $-50,000  

19 

560 

1.5 

10.4 

$50,000.  under  $100,000  

5 

737 

1.2 

8.2 

$100,000,  and  over 

4 

3.918 

1.6 

9.7 

All  Other  Expexses  Take  Less  Thax  Half  of  Margix 

The’  three  principal  expenses — labor,  delivery,  and  rent — 
consumed  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  the  retailer’s 
margin.  The  remaining  large  number  of  small  expenses 
amounted  to  from  1.7  cents  to  6.7  cents  out  of  each  dollar  paid 
by  consumei-s.  Tables  II  and  IV  indicate  to  some  extent  the 
nature  and  importance  of  these  costs.  They  cover  such  items 

as  paper  bags,  wrapping  paper,  string,  order  books,  stationery, 

* 

depreciation,  advertising,  interest  paid  on  borrowed  money, ^ 
losses  thix)ugh  bad  accounts,  and  various  other  expenses.  In  the 
larger  stores  these  expenses  were  kept  lower  than  in  small  stores. 

Grocery  axd  ]\Ieat  Eetailers  Are  Not  Profiteers 

The  food  retailers  of  Madison  during  1919  received  total 
margins  which  varied  from  12.2  cents  to  18.2  cents  out  of  each 
dollar  paid  by  consumers.  Their  operating  expenses  took  from 
8.8  cents  to  14.5  cents,  while  balances  ranged  from  2.2  cents  to 
6.2  cents  per  dollar  of  sales.  Since  these  balances  averaged 
only  $2,234  for  the  year  and  this  was  the  only  source  of  earn- 
ings with  which  to  pay  the  storekeeper  or  manager  his  wages 
or  salary  and  to  provide  profits,  it  cannot  be  said  that  Madison 
food  retailers  are  profiteers.  The  figures  in  Table  X indicate  that 
storekeepers  running  the  smaller  establishments  do  not  earn 
even  wages  for  their  own  labor,  let  alone  paying  interest  on 
their  investment  and  making  profits.  They  continue  in  busi- 


^ Interest  on  borrowed  money  is  an  expense  contracted  as  payment  for  the  use  of 
other  people’s  money  just  as  wages  are  contracted  as  payment  for  the  use  of  other 
people’s  time  and  energy. 


What  the  Retailer  Does  With  the  Consumer’s  Dollar  17 


Table  X, — Balances^  Earned  by  36  Retailers — 1919 


Size  of  stores 

Number 

stores 

Total 

balances 

Average 

balance 

Under  $20, 000  

9 

$4,056 

$450 

820,000,  under  $50,000  

18 

28,763 

1,600 

850,000,  under  $100,000 

5 

9,767 

1,954 

8100,000,  and  over 

4 

30,488 

7,622 

All  stores 

36 

73,074 

2,030 

^ See  definitions  on  page  5. 


ness  by  the  hope  that  conditions  will  improve.  Stores  with 
sales  of  $50,000  to  $100,000  annually  scarcely  bring  more  than 
current  wages  to  storekeepers.  In  all  stores  doing  a business 
of  $100,000  or  more,  there  were  several  managers  or  partners 
so  that  even  in  these  larger  stores  a balance  of  $7,600  is  not 
more  than  $2,000  to  $2,500  to  each  storekeeper  or  partner. 
Even  in  the  larger  stores,  therefore,  retailing  cannot  in  any 
sense  be  considered  a highly  paid  line  of  work.  The  retailer 
who  is  able  to  earn  a salary  of  $2,500  is  in  a class  so  rare  that 
he  should  feel  fortunate  indeed.  Table  XI  shows  the  balances 


Table  XI,— Balances^  Made  in  Grocery  and  Meat  Stores 


Size  of  Store 

Meat  stores 

Grocery  stores 

Number  | 
stores 

Average 

balance 

Number 

Average 

balance 

Under  820, 000 

2 

* $51  loss 

7 

$594 

$20,000,  under  $50,000 

5 

2,045 

13 

1,426 

$50,000,  under  $100,000 

1 

313  loss 

4 

2,520 

$100,000,  and  over 

2 

i 7,328 

2 

7,916 

All  stores 

10 

2,447 

26 

1,870 

1 So<>  definitions  on  page  5. 


received  in  meat  and -grocery  I'elail  stores  of  different  sizes. 
Only  the  larger  stoi-cs  were  aide  to  make  sufficient  earnings  to 
cover  wages  and  make  a pi-ofit. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  324 


Profit  is  Reward  to  Efficient  Retailer  Only 

The  size  of  the  retailer’s  balance  is  in  reality  a reward  for 
his  efficiency.  Competition  is  keen  indeed.  Among  30  stores 
studied,  eight  lost  amounts  ranging  from  $200  to  $1,921  while 
some  made  balances  around  $3,000.  Those  who  lost  monej^  and 
those  who  made  the  highest  profits  sold  goods  of  the  same 
quality  for  practically  the  same  prices.  The  losses  were  directly 
the  result  of  either  small  size  of  business  causing  excessive  costs 
due  to  inefficiency,  or  to  inability  to  purchase  supplies  or  prod- 
ucts in  accordance  with  the  needs  of  the  business. 

It  is  the  economic  duty  of  private  middlemen  to  buy  as 
cheaply  as  they  can  and  to  sell  at  the  highest  prices  obtainable 
under  fair  competition.  This  is  true  regardless  of  the  price 
which  retailers  may  have  to  pay  for  the  products.  The  man 
who  can  buy  cheaply  is  just  as  much  entitled  to  sell  at  the 
current  consumer  price  as  are  those  who  w^ere  obliged  to  pay 
excessive  prices  for  their  goods.  That  the  prices  which  con- 
sumers pay  retailers  rise  relatively  high  at  times  is  proof  of 
a shortage  of  supply  so  far  as  either  the  retailer  or  the  con- 
sumer is  concerned. 

The  middleman  who  pays  more  for  supplies  than  competitive 
conditions  require,  or  sells  to  consumers  for  less  than  the  market 
situation  justifies,  is  manipulating  economic  conditions  to  the 
detriment  of  both  producers  and  consumers.  On  the  con- 
sumer side,  when  prices  are  lower  than  can  be  obtained,  the 
low  prices  artificially  register  a sufficient  supply  when  in  reality 
there  is  not.  The  result  is  that  producers  are  paid  lower 
prices.  In  turn  lower  prices  reduce  supply  to  the  detriment  of 
both  consumers  and  producers.  On  the  contrary,  when  more  is 
paid  for  products  than  is  necessary,  the  high  prices  artificially 
register  a shortage  in  supply  while  in  reality  there  is  no 
shortage.  Moreover,  high  prices  encourage  production  when  it 
IS  not  needed.  This  leads  to  oversupply,  with  falling  prices 
to  producers  as  a r^ult.  To  avoid  such  manipulation  it  is 
necessary  that  all  retailers  buy  at  as  low  prices  as  competition 
permits  and  sell  for  as  high  prices  as  other  competitors  receive. 


What  the  Retailer  Does  With  the  Consumer’s  Dollar  19 


Monopolists  Are  the  Only  Profiteers 

The  most  effective  way  of  regulating  prices,  or  of  overcoming 
shortage  and  of  preventing  oversupply,  is  for  all  competitive 
middlemen  to  practice  this  economic  principle.  According  to 
this  pr*inciple — buying  at  lowest,  prices  and  selling  at  highest 
prices  consistent  with  volume  of  sales  and  efficient  services — no 
^ competitive  business  can  profiteer.  Profiteering  exists  only 
when  a monopoly  artificially  controls  and  limits  supply  to 
regulate  price  and  exact  wide  margins.  This  study  of  Madi- 
son food  retailers  finds  them  strictly  competitive.  The  evils 
which  the  public  has  imagined  in  regard  to  Madison  retailers 
of  food  is  not  due  to  any  form  of  profiteering.  On  the  con- 
trary some  of  the  evils,  attributed  to  profiteering,  are  directly 
due  to  weaknesses  of  competition,  rather  than  to  supposed 
manipulations  of  monopoly. 

Causes  of  Inefficiency  in  Retail  System 

The  distribution  of  Madison’s  food  supply  is  now  accomplished 
by 'so  many  retailers  that  the  average  ones  do  too  small  a busi- 
ness. Altogether  too  large  a number  are  inexcusably  small. 
The  small  retailer  cannot  buy  efficiently.  Because  more  than 
two-fifths  of  the  food  supply  of  Madison  is  purchased  by  ex- 
ceedingly small  concerns,  competition  is  regulated  by  retail- 
ers who  are  inefficient  buyers.  The  two  chief  weaknesses  of 
the  present  retail  system  are  that  the  costs  of  operating  small 
stores  are  greater  than  those  of  large  stores  and  that  small  size 
prevents  efficient  buying. 

The  public  tends  to  assume  that  price  cutting  is  the  secret 
of  doing  business  successfully.  This  is  a practice,  however, 
of  small  and  inefficient  storekeepers  only.  Yet  in  spite  of  fre- 
quently selling  special  articles  at  cut  prices,  numerous  stores 
Avhich  do  this  obtain  no  smaller  annual  margins  than  do  large 
stores.  The  reductions  of  margin  on  some  articles  are  usually 
balanced  by  higher  margins  on  goods  that  are  not  advertised 
or  sold  as  specialties.  To  buy  at  the  lowest  possible  prices 
and  to  sell  at  the  highest  prices  obtainable,  consistent  with 
efficient  performance  of  retail  services,  leads  every  efficient  store 
manager  to  solicit  business,  not  by  price  cutting,  but  by  prov- 


20 


"Wisconsin  Bulletin  324 


ing  to  customers  that  they  secure  more  for  their  money  at 
one  place  than  at  another.  Public  welfare  demands  larger 
volume  of  products  per  store. 

There  are  two  current  ideals  of  business.  One  is  based  on 
maximum  sales  at  lowest  margins  to  secure  similar  aggregate 
profits;  the  other  is  based  on  minimum  sales  at  maximum 
margins.  The  former  is  more  in  keeping  with  public  interest. 
The  large  store  can  buy  cheaply  enough  to  make  a profit  when 
the  small  store  is  losing  money.  Moreover,  the  large  store  cail*^ 
study  and  find  means  of  reducing  costs  which  the  small  con- 
cern cannot  do.  This  is  so  because  small  stores  make  insufficient 
money  to  pay  even  proper  wages,  without  hiring  experts.  To 
assume,  therefore,  that  large  stores  will  voluntarily  reduce 
prices  in  order  to  drive  smaller  stores  from  the  field  is  not 
generally  in  keeping  vfith  retail  store  customs  and  practice. 
Under  present  conditions,  therefore,  margins  received  by  re- 
tailers are  regulated  generally  by  the  width  of  margin  required 
to  ke?p  the  small,  inefficient  store  in  business.  This  is  un- 
fortunate because  the  small  store,*  as  such,  has  not  the  funds  with 
which  to  pay  for  management  which  will  take  the  initiative 
in  improving  retail  conditions.  It  is  powerless  actively  to  stim- 
ulate conditions  among  the  retailers  of  the  city  which  will 
generally  result  in  (1)  creating  greater  efficiency  in  buying; 
(2)  reducing  operating  expenses;  and  (3)  reducing  margins. 
Neither  can  these  small  stores  bring  about  needed  improve- 
ments of  a strictly  trade  character,  as  for  example  standardized 
accounting,  systematizerl  and  unified  deliveries,  uniform  credit 
systems  and  other  desirable  features. 

]\lusT  Have  Food  Handled  by  Efficient  Stores  Only 

Improvement  in  the  retail  system  requires  above  all  else 
that  the  handling  of  food  be  done  entirely  by  efficient  stores. 
To  have  all  stores  in  operation  large  enough  to  render  retail 
services  efficients  requires  that  their  number  be  reduced 
either  by  consolidation  or  by  elimination.  This  cannot  be  done 
easily  or  without  opposition.  That  it  should  be  done  is  certain. 

Consolidation  or  elimination  might  be  brought  about  in  a 
number  of  ways.  The  retailers  might  face  the  problem  squarely 
and  initiate  a plan  of  consolidation,  but  that  is  not  likely. 
Competition  is  such  that  retailers  seem  to  be  unable  to  take 


What  the  Retailer  Does  With  the  Consumer’s  Dollar  21 


action  upon  most  of  the  solutions  which  would  require  mutual 
agreement  and  enforcement.  It  is  exceedingly  doubtful  whether 
the  causes  of  present  retail  inefficiency  will  ever  be  eliminated 
by  retailers  themselves. 


Methods  op  Promoting  Efficiency 

A more  dependable  means  of  promoting  efficiency  in  ail  re- 
tail stores  is  to  stimulate’  keener  competition  among  efficient 
concerns.  It  may  be  done  in  two  ways.  A number  of  con- 
sumers might  be  organized  into  a cooperative  society  which, 
because  of  a steady  large  volume  of  business,  could  employ  the 
highest  grade  of  management.  First-rate  management  could 
either  force  all  of  the  small  stores  out  of  business  or  compel 
them  to  consolidate  in  order  to  survive.  Consolidated  stores 
would  mean  enlarged  sales,  more  efficient  buying  of  supplies, 
lower  operating  expenses,  and  reduced  margins. 

If  cooperation  does  not  seem  feasible  as  a means  of  affecting 
consolidation,  consumers  might  be  led  to  concentrate  their 
patronage  on  a number  of  suitably  situated,  efficient  stores. 
The  enlarged  volume  of  business  would  justify  lower  expenses 
and  margins.  Whether  these  stores  were  in  competition  or  not 
could  be  ascertained  when  the  problem  became  of  practical 
importance.  Suitable  regulations  could  be  imposed  then  to 
promote  efficient  service  for  the  public. 

As  a last  resort,  some  form  of  municipal  commission  work- 
ing with  state  marketing  officials  might  be  developed  to  in- 
vestigate and  place  before  the  public  facts  which  indicate  the 
conditions  of  retailing  in  respective  localities.  New  enter- 
prises could  be  required  to  show  reasons  why  they  should  be 
licensed  for  entrance  into  retailing  business.  All  concerns 
which  were  in  business  and  failed  to  furnish  efficient  retail 
services  to  the  public  could  be  closed  by  revocation  of  licenses. 
This,  however,  represents  a step  which  progressive  retailers 
should  attempt  to  avoid  by  seeing  to  it  that  other  less  radical 
measures  are  effectively  applied  to  improve  or  remove  present 
inefficiency  in  the  retailing  of  food. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  324 


Retailers  should  recognize  that  as  middlemen  they  are  re- 
sponsible for  rendering  services  efficiently.  They  should, 
therefore,  tm^  to  regulate  the  conditions  of  retailing  to  bring 
about  betterment  to  themselves  and  to  the  public  and  not  per- 
mit present  weaknesses  to  continue. 


Facts  Before  Acts 


The  public  conception  of  the  marketing  system  is  largely 
founded  on  lack  of  reliable  facts.  Without  correct  information, 
conclusions  and  the  actions  arising  from  them  are  just  as 
likely  to  be  destructive  as  constructive.  Nothing  is  more 
needed  at  the  present  time  than  constructive  action  in  the  field 
of  marketing.  Especially  is  this  true  of  retailing  because  the 
largest  part  of  the  present  marketing  margin — meaning  the 
difference  between  what  farmers  receive  and  what  consumers 
pay  for  products — is  required  to  cover  expenses  of  the  present 
retail  system. 

Constructive  action  is  not  likely  to  be  achieved  until  farm- 
ers, middlemen  and  consumers  all  gain  a common  understand- 
ing of  the  underlying  economic  forces  and  principles  governing 
marketing.  Improvement  hinges  upon  the  cooperation  of  these 
three  groups.  Improved  marketing,  therefore,  necessitates  first 
that  all  classes  of  people  acquire  a greater  knowledge  of  eco- 
nomic principles  and  second  that  these  principles  be  practiced 
in  buying  and  selling  goods  and  services. 


nsir  0-A 

Bulletin  325  ^ 


January,  1921 


- ■' 


't* 


- --  .'^AGIi«>(JLTURAl/Exi4.KiME  STA'l'TON,' 
jaNC^EUSITY  OF  WrS90NSIN  ‘ 
y..,.:;V''  MAmsoN  ■ •■> 


DIGEST 


Build  from  a plan.  The  best  results  from  building  can  be  had 
only  by  planning  the  structure  before  laying  the  foundation. 

Pages  3-6 

' Direct  sunlight  is  a good  disinfectant,  and  should  be  used  to  the 
utmost.  Square  projections  of  walls  at  the  sides  and  bottom  of  a 
window  cut  off  much  direct  sunlight.  Windows  should  be  as  near 
the  outside  of  the  wall  as  practicable.  Pages  6-7 

A ventilation  system  is  necessary  if  animals  are  to  be  kept  in  good 
condition.  The  King  system  (after  Prof.  F.  H.  King)  is  satisfactory 
for  Wisconsin  conditions.  Good  ventilation  depends  on  having  air  flues 
of  the  proper  size,  arrangement,  and  construction.  Pages  7-14 

A well  drained  site  for  the  barn  is  essential.  A barn  with  its  long- 
er dimension  north  and  south  receives  the  most  sunlight  in  the  fore- 
noon and  late  afternoon.  An  east  and  west  position  allows  the  ab- 
sorption of  the  most  sunlight  during  the  middle  of  the  day  when  di- 
rect sunlight  is  most  effective.  Pages  14-16 

The  size  of  barn  to  build  does  not  depend  upon  the  size  of  the 
farm,  but  upon  local  conditions.  Page  16 

The  rectangular  barn  ^vith  a gambrel  roof  is  the  most  popular  in 
Wisconsin.  An  outside  width  of  36  feet  accommodates  two  rows  of 
stanchions.  Cows  may  be  arranged  either  “heads  together”  or 
“tails  together.”  Gambrel  roofs  of  the  plank  frame  or  braced  raft- 
er type  or  the  Gothic  roofs  are  self  supporting  and  will  allow  more 
mow  capacity  than  do  the  gable  roofs.  Pages  17-23 

The  settler’s  barn  must  be  of  a different  type  from  the  structure 
planned  for  an  improved  farm.  Hewn  timber  and  other  materials 
at  hand  can  be  used  with  advantage.  The  barn  plan  should  allow' 
for  future  additions.  Pages  27-30 

Remodeling  the  old  barn  is  often  necessary  on  many  farms. 
In  some  cases  only  the  inside  needs  changing  and  new  equipment. 
In  others,  additions  may  be  built  with  advantage.  Pages  27-30 

The  milk  house  belongs  outside  the  barn.  The  equipment  de- 
pends on  the  form  in  which  the  produce  is  marketed.  Page  30 

Plans  for  farm  buildings  and  equipment  may  be  had  from  the  Ag- 
ricultural Experiment  Station,  Madison.  Page  34 


Dairy  Barns 


0.  R.  Zeasman,  G.  C.  Humphrey  and  L.  M,.  Schindler 

A barn  for  Wisconsin’s  climate  must  be  warm,  well  lighted, 
and  properly  ventilated.  Cows  quartered  in  a warm  barn 
require  less  feed  and  produce  more  milk.  Money  spent  for 
inside  sheathing,  building  paper,  and  other  insulating  material 
is  well  invested.  Abundant  sunlight  and  proper  ventilation 
are  needed  to  keep  the  livestock  healthy.  Heat  is  wasted  and 
poor  circulation  results  when  windows  and  hay  chutes  are  used 
for  ventilation  in  the  winter  time. 

Wisconsin’s  reputation  for  good  dairy  cattle  brings  many 
buyers  for  such  stock  from  outside  the  state.  These  buyers,  in 
selecting  healthy  cattle,  place  much  stress  upon  the  kind  and 
condition  of  buildings  in  which  the  stock  was  raised.  Good 
barns  always  add  more  value  than  their  cost  to  the  market 
price  of  the  farm. 

Build  From  A Plan 

A conveniently  arranged  barn  saves  labor  in  doing  chores, 
A careful  study  of  a proposed  barn  plan  often  shows  how 
minor  changes  in  the  placing  of  the  stalls  or  the  position  of 
the  feed  room  or  silo  will  effect  a big  saving  in  labor.  Changes 
are  often  difficult  and  always  more  costly  to  make  after  the 
barn  is  built.  A plan  gives  the  owner  a picture  of  his  barn 
before  building  starts  and  allows  him  to  make  changes.  Work- 
men make  fewer  mistakes  and  put  up  a better  bam  if  they 
are  required  to  follow  a good  plan  rather  than  to  work  out 
the  construction  and  arrangement  haphazardly. 

The  Right  Barn  For  the  Right  Farm 

The  size,  arrangement,  and  storage  capacity  of  a dairy  barn 
depend  upon  local  conditions  and  the  methods  of  the  manager. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


Five  braces  are  spiked  to  each  set  of  Trusses  spaced  12  or  14  feet  apart  sup- 
rafters.  Short  stock  lengths  of  lumber  port  the  roof.  Rafters  between  trusses 

are  used  for  the  entire  frame.  are  not  braced  but  are  spiked  to  a purlin 

plate. 

The  right  barn  for  one  farm  may  not  be  the  right  barn  for 
another  farm  of  the  same  size.  Sometimes  not  more  than  eight 
or  ten  cows  are  kept  on  a 200  acre  farm,  while  twice  as  many 
dairy  cows  are  often  found  on  a 40  acre  farm.  The  fertility 
of  the  soil,  local  market  prices,  cost  of  conunercial  feeds,  and 
the  interest  of  the  owner  will  all  affect  the  type  of  farming 


PIG  2.— HOMEMADE  BUT  PRACTICAL 
This  stall  can  be  built  by  farm  labor.  Stall  floor  and  manner  are  easily  cleaned. 


Dairy  Barns 


5 


followed.  This  will  determine  the  size  and  arrangement  of 
the  barn.  Attempts  to  develop  model  standard  barn  plans 
for  farms  of  a given  size,  therefore,  meet  with  little  success. 
The  owner  can  best  make  a suitable  choice  after  studying  local 
conditions. 

Certain  features  of  building,  however,  have  become  stand- 
ardized. The  construction  used  for  two  of  the  most  common 
types  of  framing — ^the  plank  truss  and  braced  rafter  types 
(Fig.  1) — has  been  quite  commonly  adopted.  The  Gothic  roof 
barn  (Fig.  16)  is  a re- 
cent feature  that  is 
gaining  favor.  Stand- 
a r d dimensions  for 
stalls,  mangers  and  gut- 
ters are  also  desirable. 

Labor-saving  devices 
such  as  litter  carriers, 
feed  carriers,  or  feed 
trucks  are  worth  hav- 
ing. Home-made  devices 
may  often  be  used  ad- 
vantageously. Figure  2 
suggests  a home-made 
cow  stall  and  manger, 
with  an  adjustable 

metal  stanchion.  The  manger  is  built  in  sections,  three  or 
four  stalls  wide,  and  is  hinged  at  the  top  to  permit  raising  it 
for  cleaning. 


FIG.  3.— MANGER  CONSTRUCTION 
A movable  manger  has  some  advantages. 


Provide  Box  Stalls 

A bull  pen  and  one  or  more  calving  stalls  are  needed  on  a 
dairy  or  stock  farm.  Proper  care  of  dairy  cows  requires  at 
least  one  maternity  stall  for  every  12  to  14  cows.  These  stalls 
should  be  about  8 x 12  feet.  The  size  of  the  calf  pen  depends 
on  the  number  of  calves  to  be  raised.  Its  smallest  dimension, 
however,  should  be  not  less  than  7 feet.  A row  of  stanchions 
on  one  side,  along  an  aisle,  is  handy  for  feeding.  A box  stall, 
about  12x12  feet  is  often  provided  for  the  bull,  or  a single 
stall  may  be  used.  A convenient  arrangement  for  the  bull 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


This  Den  is  so  arrang:ed  that  the  at- 
tendant can  care  for  the  bull  without 
entering  the  stall. 


stall  is  shown  in  figure  4. 
It  provides  for  two  outside 
doors,  one  for  the  bull  to 
enter,  the  other  to  go  out. 
Such  an  arrangement  makes 
it  unnecessary  for  the  attend- 
ant to  enter  the  stall.  The 
exit  door  can  be  opened 
from  the  outside,  the  bull 
untied  from  the  front  and  ak 
lowed  to  go  out  and  exer- 
cise. This  plan  prevents 
the  bull  from  turning 
around ; and  there  is  no 
necessity  for  getting  into 
the  stall  either  to  turn  him 
out  or  to  tie  him. 

Sunlight  a Good  Disinfect- 
ant 


Direct  sunlight  should  be 
used  to  the  utmost.  A well-lighted  barn  is  more  easily  kept 
sanitary.  Bank  barns  are  dark  and  damp  and  have  only  one 
good  feature — a direct  drive  to  the  second  floor.  This  may 
be  had  without  sacrificing  light  on  one  side  of  the  barn  by 


MG.  5.— DRIVEWAY  TO  THE  MOW 

This  arrangement  has  all  the  advantages  of  a bank  barn  and  allows  light  and  fresh 
air  to  enter  the  barn  from  all  sides. 


Dairy  Barns 


7 


the  use  of  an  incline  drive  (Fig.  5).  A bridge,  as  suggested, 
permits  placing  windows  and  intakes  for  ventilation  on  the 
four  sides  of  the  stable. 

An  allowance  of  one  square  foot  of  window  area  (glass  area) 
to  20  square  feet  of  floor  area  is  advisable.  Wide  windows, 
well  placed  near  the  outside  wall  and  without  projections  at 
the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  opening,  are  necessary  for  good 
lighting  of  the  barn. 

Which  Way  Shall  the  Barn  Face? 

Barns  are  usually  placed  with  their  length  either  east  and 
west  or  north  and  south.  Since  each  way  has  certain  ad- 
vantages, dairymen  disagree  as  to  which  is  the  better.  During 
the  early  forenoon  and  late  afternoon  when  the  sunlight  enters 
a barn  in  the  north  and  south  position,  the  rays  of  sunlight 
are  so  indirect  that  it  is  not  very  effective  as  a disinfectant. 
A barn  placed  east  and  west  can  receive  direct  sunlight  through 
about  12  windows  during  the  noon  period  when  the  sunlight 
is  most  intense.  The  north  and  south  arrangement  allows  only 
a few  windows  to  receive  direct  sunlight  at  the  noon  hour,  but 
it  does  permit  more  windows  to  receive  direct  sunlight  during 
the  day,  and  the  sunlight  reaches  more  of  the  interior  of  the 
barn.  The  east  and  west  barn  protects  the  feed  lot  better 
fixim  the  north  wind;  while  the  north  and  south  barn  affords 
better  protection  from  the  west  wind.  Considering  the  ad- 
vantages from  the  viewpoint  of  lighting,  it  is  best  to  place 
the  barn  with  the  long  axis  east  and  west.  Other  factors  such 
ns  exposure,  location  of  yards,  etc.,  occasionally  make  it  de- 
sirable to  place  the  barn  with  the  long  axis  north  and  south. 

Fresh  Air  Saves  Feed 

Dairy  cows  i)roducc  more  milk  and  make  more  economical 
use  of  feed  when  given  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.  Cows  housed* 
in  a well  ventilated  barn  are  better  able  to  resist  infection 
because  the  number  of  genns  in  the  air  is  greatly  reduced.  A 
good  ventilation  system  helps  to  keep  the  temperature  more 
nearly  uniform.  In  Wisconsin,  where  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
livestfKik  under  sln'ller  for  sevenil  months  each  yeai*,  a system 
of  ventilation  1o  provide  f I’osh  air  without  cooling  Hn*  barn 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


below  a desirable  stable  temperature  is  essential.  The  King 
system  of  ventilation  was  deyised  by  the  late  F.  H.  King  of 
the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.  This  system  is  very  satis- 
factory for  Wisconsin  conditions  and  is  recommended  by  nearly 
all  architects  and  manufacturers  of  barn  equipment  in  Wis- 
consin and  adjoining  states.  No  individual  nor  corporation 
has  any  patent  rights  to  limit  or  prevent  the  general  use  of 
the  King  system  of  ventilation. 

The  efficiency  of  the  King  system  depends  upon  the  loca- 
tion, size,  and  construction  of  the  intake  flues  and  outlet  flues. 
Non-conducting  walls  and  ceiling,  and  good  tight  doors  and 
windows  are  essential.  As  in  any  natural  or  automatic  sys- 
tem of  ventilation,  no  provision  can  be  made  to  warm  the 
incoming  fresh  air  except  by  the  heat  supplied  from  the  bodies 
of  the  animals.  The  'fresh  air  is  warmed  ’by  mixing  it  with 
the  warm  air  of  the  barn  at  the  ceiling. 

Arrangement  and  Construction  of  Flues 


The  fresh  air  intakes  are  located  from  10  to  |15  feet  apart 
along  the  barn  wall.  The  air  enters  the  stable  at  the  ceil- 
ing (See  B.  Fig  6)  where  it  mixes  with  the  warm  air  before 


fig.  6.— KING  intake  IN  FRAME  WALL 

1.  The  amount  of  air  enterinff  the  barn  is  con- 
trolled by  an  adjustable  damper. 

2.  Modified  King  intake  in  frame  wall.  This 
arrangement  brings  the  fresh  air  to  the  center  of 
the  barn. 


reaching  the  stock.  The 
outside  opening  of  the  flue 
at  A is  placed  at  least  4 
feet  below  B in  order  to 
prevent  back  draft.  Where 
back  drafts  are  likely  to 
occur  it  is  necessary  to 
have  this  upright  portion 
of  the  flue  6 feet  long  to 
trap  the  warm  air  effect- 
ively. Back  draft  is  most 
likely  to  occur  in  flues  near 
corners  of  a barn  when  a 
strong  wind  blows  around 
the  corners  of  the  barn  in 
a direction  which  causes  an 
eddy  or  suction  at  the  open- 
ing of  an  intake.  The  in- 
side wall  of  the  flue  is  in- 


Dairy  Barns 


9 


sulated  with  two  thicknesses  of  boards,  one  thickness  of 
building  paper  and  a %-inch  air  space.  This  prevents  the 
moisture  from  gathering  on  the  stable  wall  at  this  point.  A 
l^-inch  mesh  or  coarser  screen  at  A protects  the  flue  without 
materially  reducing  the  flow  of  air.  Where  the  cows  face  the 
center  of  the  barn,  many  dairymen  favor  the  construction  of 
the  intake  flue  illustrated  by  figure  6 because  the  fresh  air  is 


lur^TION  Slctiok 

FIG.  7.-KING  INTAKE  IN  A STONE  WALE 
A !(/'  sewer  tile  forms  the  flue.  A metal  flue  may  be  substituted  for  the  tile. 

brought  to  the  heads  of  the  animals.  Figure  7 shows  the  con- 
struction of  an  intake  flue  in  a 24- inch  stone  wall.  For  a 
12-inch  concrete  wall  three  6-inch  tile,  side  by  side,  may  be 
built  in  the  wall,  or  a wooden  form  (Fig.  8)  used.  Chimney 
flue  lining  of  the  right  size  can  often  be  used  with  advantage. 
A strip  of  woven  wire  fencing  several  inches  Avider  than  the 
intake,  placed  in  the  thin  wall  outside  the  intake,  prevents 
cracking  of  the  wall  at  this  point.  The  inside  wall  of  the  flue 
form  may  be  built  after  the  wall  is  poured. 


10  • 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


Intake  flues  can  be 
added  after  the  barn  is 
built  (Fig.  9).  A hole 
is  cut  through  the  wall 
near  the  ceiling  and  a 
flue,  closed  at  the  sides 
and  top,  is  built  on  the 
outside  of  the  wall. 
This  method  is  useful 
in  remodeling  barns 
but  not  for  new  ones 
because  it  is  cheaper 
and  better  to  build  the 
flue  in  the  wall  when 
the  barn  is  being 
raised. 

The  success  of  a ven- 
tilation system  depends 
much  on  the  outlet 
flues.  Leaky,  poorly  in- 
sulated outlet  flues  re- 
move little  foul  air 
from  the  barn  and  also 
allow  moisture  to  con- 
dense in  the  flue. 
Water  drips  back  into 
the  stable  from  the  flue 
and  the  walls  remain 
damp.  A flue  built  of 
matched  lumber  and 
building  paper  (Fig. 
10)  is  practically  air 
tij'ght,  well  insulated, 
and  gives  good  service. 
A door  in  the  flue  near 
the  ceiling  permits 
cooling  the  stable  in 
the  summer.  Galvan- 
ized iron,  properly  in- 
sulated, may  also  be 

The  wooden  form  is  set  in  place  beUveen  the  wall  uScd  ill  making  ail  OUt- 
forms  before  the  concrete  is  poured. 


Dairy  Barns 


11 


let  flue.  A galvanized 
iron  or  tin  flue  without 
insulation  is  inefficient. 

Abrupt  bends  in  the 
outlet  flue  reduce  the 
air  velocity.  A smooth 
inside  wall  retards  the 
flow  of  air ’less  than  a 
rough  wall.  The  outlet 
flue  which  reaches 
above  the  highest  point 
of  the  building  and 
other  nearby  obstruc- 
tions uses  the  full  force 
of  the  wind  and  pre- 
vents down  draft. 

Great  care  must  be 
taken  in  locating  the 
outlet  flues.  If  they  are 
placed  close  to  the 
heads  of  the  cattle,  all 
of  the  foul  air  will  pass 
directly  by  the  ani- 
mals and  much  of  it 
will  be  breathed  in  by 
them.  If  placed  too 
near  the  entrance,  the 

opening  of  the  door  breaks  the  drawing  action  of  the  flue.  It 
is  desirable  to  have  the  outlet  flues  out  of  the  way  and  yet 
they  should  be  so  placed  as  to  draw  out  the  foul  air  most  readily. 


Fresh  air  inlet  flues  can  be  added  to  any  barn  with 
but  little  expense. 


Build  the  Flues  the  Right  Size 


It  is  common  practice  to  provide  the  same  amount  of  out- 
let area  as  intake  area  if  the  liarn  is  well  built  and  has  tight 
fitting  doors  and  windows.  Professor  King’s  recommendation 
is;  ‘‘Outlets  and  intakes  for  horses  and  cows  should  provide 
not  less  than  30  square  inches  a head  when  the  outlet  has  a 
height  of  30  feet;  if  the  outlet  is  shorter,  the  area  should  be 
greater;  if  higher,  it  may  be  less.  A 20  foot  outlet  flue  would 
require  about  36  square  inches  per  head  instead  of  30  inches.” 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


The  flue  will  require  less  space  in  the  stable  if  built  partially  in  the  wall.  A 2-inch 
air  space  is  required  between  the  outside  sheathing-  and  the  flue.  ^ 

The  most  practical  size  of  intake  flue  is  one  having  a cross- 
sectional  area  of  50  to  100  square  inches  with  the  outlet  having 
300  to  500  square  inches.  If  a barn  houses  14  cows,  four  horses 
and  six  calves,  the  number  of  intakes  may  be  determined  as 
follows.  Make  an  allowance  as  for  three  mature  head  for  the 
six  calves.  The  stock  housed  would  then  be  equivalent  to  21 
mature  head.  Assuming  the  outlet  flue  to  be  of  the  average 
height,  the  cross-sectional  area  of  the  intake  flue  will  be  30 
X 21  = 630  square  inches.  A 6"  x 12"  intake  has  an  area  of 


Dairy  Barns 


13 


72  square  inches.  The  number  of  6"  x 12"  intakes  required 
would  be  630  or  about  nine.  If  we  select  an  outlet  14^"  x 22" 
72 

the  number  of  outlets  required  will  be  630  or  about  two. 

141/2"  X 22" 

Nine  intakes  6"  x 12"  and  two  outlets  I4I/2"  x 22"  are  required 
to  ventilate  this  barn. 

Windows  and  Hay  Chutes  Give 
Poor  Ventilation 

Open  windows  do  not  allow 
the  definite  circulation  of  air 
through  the  stable  so  neces- 
s a r.y  for  good  ventilation 
Cross  drafts  are  developed  be- 
tween windows,  and  much 
warm  air  from  the  stable  es- 
capes through  the  windows. 

Parts  of  the  stable  are  poorly 
ventilated  while  the  remainder 
is  cold  and  drafty.  If  all  the 
windows  are  opened  the  entire 
barn  becomes  too  cold.  Win- 
dows should  be  hinged  (Fig. 

11)  so  that  they  can  be  opened 
to  cool  the  stable  in  late 
spring,  summer,  or  autumn,  but 
they  are  poor  ventilators  in 
winter. 

Hay  Chutes  Are  Poor  Outlet  Flues 

A hay  chiite  3 feet  square  is  large  enough  to  serve  as  an 
outlet  fiue  for  45  head  of  stock,  but  to  insure  the  removal  of 
foul  air  from  all  parts  of  the  stable  there  should  be  four  or 
five  smaller  fiues  well  distributed.  The  usual  hay  chute  takes 
all  of  the  air  from  one  place  and  is  neither  air  tight  nor  well 


The  galvanized  iron  shields  fastened 
to  the  window  frames  allow  the  air  to 
enter  only  over  the  top  of  the  hinged 
windows.  This  makes  possible  addi- 
tional ventilation  without  drafts. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


insulated.  The  moist  air  is  discharged  into  the  haymow  where 
the  moisture  condenses  and  freezes  on  the  hay  and  walls. 

Supplying  Fresh  Water 

If  a water  supply  system  is  available,  running  water  should 
be  piped  to  the  barn.  A number  of  barn  equipment  companies 
manufacture  automatic  water  systems  with  individual  drink- 
ing cups  for  use  in  dairy  barns.  The  advantages  in  the  use  of 
drinking  cups  are:  (1)  cows  do  not  need  to  go  into  the  cold 

for  water;  (2)  time  required  for  turning  out  cows  to  water 
is  saved;  (3)  water  is  supplied  to  the  animals  at  more  nearly 
the  proper  temperature;  and  (4)  water  is  available  to  each 
animal  at  all  times.  These  factors  tend  to  increase  milk  pro- 
duction and  should  be  considered  when  buying  barn  equipment. 

Locating  the  Barn 

Select,  if  possible,  a site  with  good  natural  drainage.  Oc- 
casionally, other  factors  will  make  it  desirable  to  locate  the 
barn  in  a position  where  the  site  or  yards  have  poor  drainage. 
If  the  wetness  is  due  to  springs  or  seepage  water  from  under- 
ground, drain  tile  laid  in  the  usual  way  is  a remedy.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  barnyard  is  on  very  flat  ground  or  in  a 
depression,  surface  water  will  not  soak  through  the  soil — which 
is  ‘‘puddled”  and  packed  by  the  tramping  of  stock— but  will 
collect  in  the  yard  and  keep  it  wet  and  insanitary.  Such 
yards  should  be  graded  and  provided  with  surface  drainage  or 
even  covered  with  slabs  of  concrete. 

The  drainage  of  such  a yard  means  the  removal  of  the  sur- 
face water  as  quickly  as  possible  after  a rain.  A line  of  tile 
can  be  laid  underground  through  the  low  part  of  the  barn- 
yard to  an  outlet  into  some  stream,  lake,  or  ravine.  In  the 
lowest  point,  or  in  several  places,  a surface  inlet  (Fig.  12) 
should  be  installed  to  allow  the  water  to  drain  into  the  tile 
quickly.  The  cone  grate  prevents  the  entrance  of  straw,  hay 
and  other  bulky  material  that  might  clog  the  drain.  The  down 
spouts  from  the  eave  troughs,  overflows  from  watering  troughs, 
etc.,  should  lead  underground  to  this  drain. 

To  get  especially  clean  milk  extra  care  must  be  taken  to  make 
the  yards  sanitary.  Sometimes  yards  are  entirely  covered  with 


Dairy  Barns 


15 


concrete  slabs.  This  expense  is  not  always  justified,  but  under 
most  conditions  the  cost  of  concrete  approaches  at  the  doors 
and  gates,  and  slabs  at  watering  troughs  and  similar  places,  is 
a small  item  compared  with  the  benefits  resulting. 

A side  hill  location  allowing  a driveway  to  the  second  floor 
is  a minor  detail.  If  the  barn  is  located  on  level  ground,  an 
incline  can  be  built  to  the  second  floor  by  the  use  of  an  earth 
fill  and  a concrete  bridge  (Fig.  5).  Drives  are  built  now  because 
farmers  got  the  habit  when  lumber  was  cheaper,  but  the  fact  re- 
mains that  drives  do  not  make  economical  use  of  space.  Such  a 
drive  is  useful  when  one  has  a load  of  hay  on  the  wagon  during 
a rain  storm,  but  several  tarpaulins  would  do  as  well  at  a small 
annual  cost.  The  large  mow  space,  wasted  by  a second  floor 
driveway,  scarcely  justifies  the  convenience. 


PIG.  12.— AN  EFPOIENT  SURFACE  INTAKE. 


The  arrangement  of  the  yards  and  fields,  and  the  location 
of  the  well,  machinery  shed  and  granaries  are  factoi’s  to  be 
considered  in  locating  the  barn.  It  should  be  at  least  200  feet 
from  the  house  and  so  placed  that  the  prevailing  winds  do 
not  carry  its  odors  towards  the  house.  Under  the  best  sani- 
tary conditions  possible  there  will  be  some  odor  from  the  barn ; 
and  the  time  saved  i^n  going  to  and  from  the  barn  by  having 
it  clos(‘  1o  Ihe  house,  will  not  justify  (uidui’ing  the  uUpleasant 
odors. 

The  bani  should  not  be  made  Ihe  most  conspicuous  farm 
building.  It  is  secondaiy  to  the  house  and  should  be  so  lo- 


IG 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


cated  as  not  to  obstruct  views  from  the  house.  Usually,  a 
location  at  one  side  and  somewhat  to  the  rear  of  the  house 
will  be  found  the  most  suitable. 

If  it  is  impossible  to  have  drives  leading  both  to  the  barn 
and  to  the  house,  the  barn  should  be  so  located  that  either  the 
service  drive  or  a branch  of  it  may  be  made  to  serve  the  house. 
This  does  not  mean  that  a drive  must  come  within  a few  feet 
of  the  house,  as  is  so  many  times  the  case,  but  it  should  be 
convenient.  It  is  undesirable  to  have  the  service  drive  for 
the  barn,  over  which  heavy  hauling  and  delivery  of  hay  and 
straw  is  to  take  place,  close  to  the  house.  The  drive  may  be 
screened  by  the  proper  planting  of  the  lawn  surrounding  the 
house. 

One- Story  Barn 

A one-story  barn  with  hay  shed  attached  provides  shelter  for 
stock  and  storage  of  feed  at  the  lowest  building  cost  per  ani- 
mal. This  type  of  barn,  however,  is  not  so  warm  as  the  two- 
story  barn  with  feed  stored  overhead  and  although  satisfac- 
tory as  a cattle  barn,  it  is  not  so  popular  as  a dairy  barn  in 
this  climate. 

The  Round  Barn 

The  round  barn,  although  introduced  years  ago,  has  never 
gained  much  in  favor.  It  has,  however,  these  advantages : 

1.  The  labor  of  feeding  is  reduced  to  a minimum. 

2.  More  floor  space  can  be  enclosed  by  the  same  amount  of 
wall  than  in  any  other  type  of  barn. 

3.  The  walls  and  roof  of  the  structure  are  both  self-bracing. 
The  advantages  of  the  round  barn,  however,  are  more  than  off- 
set by  these  disadvantages: 

1.  It  is  difficult  to  All  the  silo  because  it  is  located  in  the 
middle  of  the  barn. 

2.  The  driveway  takes  up  more  space  than  in  a rectangular 
barn. 

3.  The  barn  once  built  is  a unit  in  itself  and  cannot  be  en- 
larged like  the  rectangular  barn. 


Dairy  Barns 


17 


Rectangular  Barns  Are  Most  Popular 

The  majority  of  dairy  barns  in  Wisconsin  are  rectangular. 
The  best  inside  arrangement  is  one  or  two  rows  of  stanchions 
and  box  stalls  parallel  to  the  long  dimension  of  the  barn. 
The  one  row  arrangement  requires  a barn  18  to  20  feet  wide 
while  a 34  or  36  foot  width  accommodates  two  rows.  For  the 
larger  herds  the  two  row  arrangement  is  cheaper  to  build  and 
more  convenient.  Arranging  several  short  rows  of  stanchions 
across  the  width  of  the  barn  requires  more  labor  in  doing 
chores.  This  plan  requires  a wi^th  of  40  feet  or  more  to 
house  the  same  number  of  cows  for  a given  length  of  floor 
as  the  two  row  arrangement  with  a width  of  36  feet.  A barn 
40  or  more  feet  wide  requires  heavy  roof  framing  and  is  there- 
fore more  costly.  The  labor  of  mowing  away  the  hay  is  also 
much  greater  in  a wide  barn.  Most  dairymen  favor  the  two 
row  arrangement. 

Shall  Cows  Face  in  or  Out? 

Whether  it  is  better  to  face  cows  from  or  toward  a center 
aisle  is  an  open  question.  Good  arguments  can  be  made  in 
favor  of  either  arrangement.  One  of  the  chief  reasons  for 
having  the  herd  face  the  center  aisle  is  that  this  arrangement 
provides  a central  feeding  alley.  It  is  more  convenient,  of 
course,  to  feed  from  one  alley,  especially  if  feeding  ensilage. 
Careful  feeding  is  necessary  to  successful  dairying  and  as  cattle 
are  fed  two  or  three  times  a day  this  point  deserves  attention. 
When  the  cows  arc  faced  in  there  is  no  danger  of  the  direct 
sunlight  affecting  the  cow’s  eyes.  This  plan  places  the  milkers 
nearest  the  light  so  they  can  sec  that  the  cow’s  udders  are 
clean.  Cleaning  out  the  manure  is  as  easy,  if  a litter  carrier 
is  provided,  as  driving  through  the  barn  between  the  two  rows 
of  cows.  A feed  carrier,  running  between  the  two  rows  of 
cattle,  can  be  used  to  carry  feed  to  vai-ious  parts  of  the  barn. 

The  advantages  of  having  the  cattle  face  out  are:  (1)  cattle 

do  not  spatter  tlie  outside  wall  with  manure  as  they  do  when 
facing  the  center  aisle;  (2)  a manure  spreader  can  be  loaded 
in  the  barn  and  hauled  directly  to  the  field,  thereby  saving 
handling  the  manure  twice;  (3)  sale  cattle  can  be  shown  to 
better  advantage  when  facing  out  from  the  center;  (4)  it  is 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


easier  to  get  cows  in  and  out  of  the  barn  with  less  danger  of 
crowding;  (5)  it  is  more  convenient  for  the  use  of  the  milking 
machine;  and  (6)  it  is  more  sanitary  because  cows  facing 
each  other  in  a central  feeding  alley  can  transmit  diseases 
readily  by  coughing  and  sneezing. 

Stall  Floors  Should  Be  Sanitary 

Wood  and  earth  lloors  are  insanitary.  A good  concrete 
floor,  insulated  by  a layer  of  cinders  underneath  and  well 
bedded  or  provided  with  an  overlay,  is  best.  Concrete  floors 


Wood  overlays  on  concrete  floor  can  be  kept  sanitary  and  may  be  replaced  with  little 

difficulty. 

finished  with  a wooden  float  are  not  slippery.  If  wooden  over- 
lays are  used  treat  all  2x4  to  be  bedded  in  the  concrete  lioor 
with  creosote,  or  leave  grooves  in  the  floor  with  bolts  em- 
bedded, in  order  to  replace  the  2 x 4 as  they  rot.  Cork  brick 
and  creosote  wood  blocks  are  excellent  materials  for  overlays 
on  stall  floors.  Such  floors  are  sanitary,  less  slippery,  last 
longer,  and  are  easier  to  keep  clean  than  a wooden  overlay. 

A stall  floor  4'  6"  to  5'  0"  long  not  including  manger  or 
gutter  is  required.  Large  Holsteins  require  4'  10"  to  5'  0", 


Dairy  Barns 


19 


FIG.  14— THE  COW  STALL  FLOOR  SHOULD  BE  CAREFULLY  PLANNED, 
important  to  have  the  feeding  alley,  the  manger,  the  stall  platform,  the  gutter,  and  the  litter  alley  or  driveway  of  proper  dimensions. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


while  for  a Jersey  or  Guernsey  a length  of  4'  6"  to  4'  9"  may 
be  ample.  If  the  cows  are  not  of  nearly  uniform  size,  the 
stalls  may  be  built  4'  6"  long  at  one  end  of  a row  of  stanchions 
and  increased  to  5'  0"  at  the  other  end.  The  cows  may  then 
be  arranged  in  the  barn  according  to  size.  A width  of  3'  4"  is 
sufficient  for  small  cows  but  large  cows  require  3'  8".  Figure 
14  suggests  dimensions  for  gutter,  manger,  feed  and  litter  aisles. 

Stable  Walls  Should  Be  Warm  and  Dry 

Satisfactory  stable  walls  have  been  built  from  a variety  of 
materials.  The  walls  should  be  smooth  in  order  to  be  easily 
kept  clean.  Warmth  is  important  in  the  economy  of  feeding. 
The  walls  should  be  so  insulated  that  there  will  be  no  gathering 
of  frost  on  them.  Lumber  walls  built  with  several  thicknesses 
of  sheathing  and  tar  paper  and  provided  with  an  air  space,  are 
good.  Certain  kinds  of  hollow  building  tile  make  a good  wall. 
Stone  masonry  walls  when  built  thick  are  warm,  but  they  are 
not  easy  to  keep  clean  because  of  roughness.  Concrete  has  been 
widely  used  and  will,  undoubtedly,  be  used  in  the  future.  A 
solid  concrete  wall,  however,  is  cold  and  becomes  covered  with 
frost  on  the  inside  during  cold  weather.  This  may  be  remedied 
to  a large  extent  by  a double  wall  with  an  air  space  between. 
Headers  of  concrete  or  metal,  however,  should  not  be  used  to 
bind  the  two  walls  together  because  they  are  conductors  for  the 
cold  and  -reduce  the  value  of  the  air  space.  A solid  concrete 
wall  may  be  made  warm  and  dry  by  fastening  furring  strips  an 
inch  or  more  in  thickness  on  the  inside  and  covering  them  with 
tar  paper  and  sheathing  or  with  insulating  board.  The  furring 
strips  are  nailed  to  2"  x 2"  bedded  in  the  concrete. 

Storm  windows  and  double  doors  make  barns  extra  warm.  The 
extra  doors  are  usually  hung  on  the  inside  of  the  building. 
When  inconvenient  to  hinge  them  at  the  sides,  the  hinges  can 
be  placed  at  the  upper  end.  The  doors  are  then  opened  by 
swinging  them  toward  the  ceiling  where  they  can  be  held  by 
hooks.  Weights  and  pulleys  and  other  ingenious  devices  can  be 
used  to  reduce  the  work  of  opening  the  door. 

Gambrel  and  Gothic  Roofs  Provide  More  Mow  Space 

Gambrel  or  Gothic  roofs  provide  more  mow  space,  are  self- 
supporting,  and  require  no  interior  posts  or  beams  if  built  ac- 


Dairy  Barns 


21 


cording  to  the  Gothic  type,  (Fig.  16)  the  plank  frame,  or  the 
braced  rafter  (Fig.  1)  method.  The  heavy  timber  type  of 
framing  is  seldom  used  now  except  in  pioneer  communities,  be- 
cause it  requires  a large  quantity  of  expensive  timber.  The 
construction  suggested  by  figure  1 takes  much  less  lumber  and 
labor  and  is  strong  and  rigid  enough  if  built  according  to  stand- 
ard designs. 

The  mow  should  provide  space  to  store  more  than  one  year’s 
requirement  of  roughage,  as  many  farmers  desire  to  carry  over 
considerable  feed.  The  capacity  may  be  computed  by  making 
an  allowance  of  12  pounds  of  hay  a cow  a day  for  the  feeding 
season.  A ton  occupies  about  512  cubic  feet. 

A common  rule  to  determine  the  rise  and  run  of  rafters  for  a 
gambrel  roof  is  shown  in  Figure  15.  The  run  of  the  lower  rafter 
is  to  equal  to  one  sixth  the 
total  span  of  the  roof 
measured  from  the  outside 
of  each  wall.  The  rise  of 
the  lower  rafter  should  be 
twice  its  run.  The  rise  of 
the  upper  rafter  should 
equal  the  run  of  the  lower 
rafter,  and  the  run  of  the 
upper  rafter  is  equal  to 
the  rise  of  the  lower  rafter. 

Barn  builders  have  re- 
cently developed  the  Gothic 
roof  barn  in  an  effort  to 
secure  even  more  storage  room  than  is  possible  in  the  gambrel 
roof.  These  barns  have  been  built  in  large  numbers  in  sec- 
tions of  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas,  and  a few  have  been 
built  in  Michigan,  Iowa  and  Wisconsin. 

Two  methods  of  building  the  circular  rafters  are  advocated. 
In  one,  all  of  the  rafters  are  built  of  four  thicknesses  of  1 inch 
by  4 inch  material  bent  to  shape  and  nailed  or  bolted  together. 
These  rafters  are  spaced  about  two  feet  apart  and  the  roof 
boards  nailed  to  them  in  the  usual  way.  The  other  method  is 
shown  in  the  detail  in  Figure  16.  Heavy  rafters  spaced  8 or  10 
feet  apart  are  built  of  four  thicknesses  of  2"  plank  or  6 thick- 
nekses  of  1"  boards  cut  to  shape  and  nailed  and  bolted  together. 


FIG.  15.— PROPORTIONS  COMMONLY  USED 
IN  RAFTERS  OF  GAMBREL  ROOFS. 

Run  1=V6  Span;  Rise  1=2  times  Run  1;  Run 
2=Rise  1;  Rise  2=Run  1. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


2"  X 4"  similar  to  the 
nailing  girts  are  fas- 
tened between  these 
rafters.  Two  thick- 
nesses  of  1"  x 4"  lum- 
ber spaced  2 feet  apart 
are  nailed  to  these  girts 
parallel  to  the  big 
rafters,  and  the  roof 
boards  are  nailed  to 
both  the  light  and  the 
heavy  rafters.  The 
rafters  have  the  shape 
of  an  arc  of  a circle, 
with  the  center  on  a 
straight  line  between 
the  plates  and  the 
radius  between  three- 
fifths  and  two-thirds 
of  the  total  width  of 
the  barn.  If  a shorter  radius  is  used  the  roof  will  not  hold 
its  shape  well  near  the  ridge, 
as  long  as  three-fourths  of 
the  width  would  be  desir- 
able because  a roof  with  a 
steeper  slope  could  main- 
tain its  shape  better. 

In  the  Gothic  barn  there 
is  no  interior  bracing,  ex- 
cept that  at  points  where 
the  heavy  rafters  are  lo- 
cated a 2"  X 12"  plank  is 
placed  just  inside  the  studs 
and  plate,  and  bolted  both 
to  the  rafters  and  fioor 
joists.  This  bracing  is  per- 
haps enough  if  the  plate  is 
not  much  over  6 feet  above 
tlie  floor  joists.  If  the  height 


It  appears,  in  fact,  that  a radius 


FlCi.  17.  GAMBBKL  AA’U  GABLE  ROOFS. 

'I'he  liay  mow  is  increased  in  size  in  a 
«::nnl>r<‘l  roof  barn  without  increasine:  tlie 
l)eiirht  of  the  roof  at  the  plate  or  ridee. 


FIG.  16.— GOTHIC  TYPE  BARN 
These  roofs  are  gaining  in  popularity 


Dairy  Barns 


23 


is  much  greater,  diago- 
nal braces  from  the 
rafter  at  the  plate  to 
the  floor  joists  at  the 
girders  should  be  put 
at  the  points  where  the 
heavy  rafters  are 
placed. 

The  end  brace  (Fig. 

18)  adds  rigidity  and 
strength  to  the  barn 
frame.  This  brace  re- 
quires little  material 
and  is  easily  put  into 
place.  Every  barn  of 
considerable  size  with 
either  plank  frame,  or 
braced  rafter,  or  Gothic 
roof  construction 
should  be  built  with 
two  such  braces  at 
each  end. 

The  Settler  Is  Barn 

The  pioneer  farmer 
in  upper  Wisconsin  itg.  is.— end  braces  add  strength. 

needs  a different  type  End  braces  prevent  the  end  walls  from  bulging  and 

add  the  rigidity  necessary  to  withstand  severe  wind 
of  barn  than  does  the  storms. 

owner  of  an  improved 

farm.  The  fire  hazard  is  often  great  and  the  amount  of  feed 
raised  the  first  few  years  is  limited.  It  would,  therefore,  be 
unwise  to  advise  having  large  or  expensive  farm  buildings  at 
the  start.  Where  capital  is  limited  it  can  be  put  to  better  use 
in  the  clearing  of  more  land.  A barn  large  enough  for  two 
cows,  a sow,  some  sheep  and  possibly  a team  will  be  adequate 
for  the  first  few  years.  A one-story  building  with  the  rough- 
age  stacked  outside  is  the  usual  arrangement.  On  new  farms 
where  enough  feed  can  be  raised  to  keep  a team  and  four  or 
more  cows,  and  more  capital  is  available,  the  settler  might 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


well  build  a larger  and  more  permanent  barn.  This  barn 
should  be  planned  to  permit  enlargement  when  it  becomes 
possible  to  increase  the  herd.  The  settler  should  use  the  ma- 


terials at  hand  for  his  building.  Timber  is  usually  available 
and  hewn  lumber,  or  that  sawed  in  a small  local  saw  mill, 
can  be  used  largely  for  the  frame  of  the  buildings.  This  re- 
duces the  cash  requirement. 

In  Figures  20  and  21  are  shown  the  plan  and  perspective  of  a 


Dairy  Barns 


25 


FIG.  20.— PLAN  I/F  PIONEER  BARN. 

Plan  1 is  built  Avhen  tlie  farm  is  cupablc  of  supporting  only  a very  limited  amount 
of  stock.  'J’iiis  is  addfvi  to  in  Plan  2 and  finally  completed  as  .‘<liown  in  Flan  3. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


FIG.  21.-PEKSPECT1VE  OP  PIONEER  BARN,  PLANS  OF  WHICH  ARE  SHOWN 

IN  FIG.  20 


Dairy  Barns 


27 


pioneer  barn.  This  can  be  built  in  sections  as  the  requirements 
demand,  without  making  expensive  changes  on  the  older  portion. 
The  farmer  may  wish  to  use  a different  plan,  but  a study  of  the 
building  suggested  will  help  him  in  making  his  own.  Three 
sides  of  the  stable  wall  in  the  first  structure  are  built  to  serve 
as  parts  of  the  permanent  barn.  The  top  structure  is  merely  a 
temporary  roof  to  protect  the  roughage.  The  root  cellar  is  pro- 
vided to  store  succulent  feed  for  the  stock.  As  the  need  for  barn 
room  increases,  the  permanent  walls  of  the  sides  of  the  barn  are 
increased  in  length  and  a permanent  superstructure  is  erected. 
The  herd  is  now  large  enough  to  justify  a silo.  The  next  en- 
largement gives  the  barn  its  final  shape  and  size.  If  necessary, 
a second  silo  may  be  built  at  this  time. 

Remodeling  The  Old  Barn 

On  many  farms  are  well  constructed  barns  capable  of  giving 
years  of  service,  but  not  built  and  equipped  according  to  present 
ideas.  It  is  commonly  known  that  the  two-row  arrangement  is 
most  desirable  for  convenience  and  economy  of  space.  There- 
fore, in  the  remodeling  of  a stable,  an  effort  should  be  made  to 
follow  this  standardized  form.  Barns  34  to  36  feet  wide  present 
no  more  difficult  problems  than  the  planning  of  the  interior 
arrangement  of  a new  barn. 

A common  defect  of  the  old  barns  is  that  they  were  built  too 
narrow'  to  house  two  rows  of  stock  comfortably  and  still  leave 
alley  room  enough  to  do  the  chores  with  advantage.  Arrang- 
ing the  COW'S  in  short  rows  across  the  barn  is  only  a poor  solu- 
tion because  with  this  arrangement  extra  time  and  labor  are  re- 
quired in  doing  the  chores.  The  manager  of  a large  farm  in 
Wisconsin  has  remodeled  a number  of  such  barns  very  satisfac- 
torily. Figure  22  represents  in  section  such  a remodeled  barn. 
One  side  wall  of  the  old  stable  30  feet  wide  is  removed  and  the 
superstructure  held  by  posts  placed  under  tlie  sill  6 to  10  feet 
apart.  A lean-to  is  built  on  this  side  of  the  barn  to  bring  the 
stable  up  to  the  desired  width.  The  roof  of  this  addition  is  made 
rather  flat  to  give  wall  room  enough  for  windows.  Tarred  felt 
roofing  is  used  to  make  the  fiat  roof  leak-proof.  The  rafters  may 
be  covered  on  the  inside  with  tar  paper  and  sheathing  to  give 
added  w^armth.  The  interior  of  the  barn  is  then  arranged  in 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


the  usual  way  and  posts  to  support  the  ceiling  are  placed  where 
needed  and  convenient. 

Another  adaptation  of  this  same  idea  is  shown  in  the  lower 
section  of  Figure  22.  Here  the  old  barn  is  wide  enough  to  per- 


FIG.  22.-A  WAY  TO  INOREASE  THE  STABLE  ROOM  WHEN  REMODELING  A 

BARN. 


mit  the  two  row  arrangement,  but  there  is  not  room  enough  in 
the  barn  for  the  calves  and  young  stock.  It  is  not  desirable 
to  house  the  calves  in  a separate  barn  both  because  of  the  incon- 
venience of  doing  the  chores  and  because  the  calves  alone  will 
not  keep  the  barn  warm  in  the  winter  time. 


Dairy  Barns 


29 


The  building  of  this  addition  is  like  that  described  above  ex- 
cept that  windows  are  placed  in  the  frame  work  above  the  sill. 
The  light  from  this  window  enters  the  stable  through  a three- 
cornered  chute  built  through  the  haymow.  This  can  be  made 
of  double  boards  with  paper  between  to  give  warmth,  and  painted 
white  on  the  inside  to  reflect  the  sunlight.  Not  quite  so  much 
use  can  be  made  of  the  direct  sunlight,  of  course,  as  one  might 
wish  but  the  lighting  is  good.  Calf  pens  are  placed  in  the  addi- 
tional space  when  convenient. 

Some  farmers  may  object  to  the  plan  because  additional  loft 
space  is  not  given.  It  must  be  remembered  that  most  of  these 
old  barns  were  built  before  the  days  of  the  silo,  and  loft  space 
was  provided  to  store  sufficient  hay  to  carry  the  stock  through 
the  winter.  By  the  use  of  the  silo  the  mow  space  needed  is  re- 
duced; and  the  factor  limiting  the  amount  of  stock  carried  on 
a farm  is  usually  lack  of  stable  and  not  lack  of  mow  room. 

A Manure  Pit  Saves  Fertilizer 

While  many  farmers  recommend  hauling  the  manure  to  the 
flelds  daily,  this  is  not  always  practicable.  At  times  the  ground 
may  be  too  soft  to  use  a manure  spreader;  or  again  rush  work 
which  must  be  done  in  due  season  might  be  delayed  in  order  to 
haul  out  the  manure.  Manure  can  be  hauled  when  other  work 
is  slack  and  most  farmers  must  plan  on  storing  at  least  part  of 
the  manure. 

The  value  of  manure  when  compared  with  the  present  price 
of  commercial  fertilizers  is  around  $5  a ton.  A few  weeks  of 
leaching  will  reduce  its  value  to  $2.50  a ton  or  less.  The  farmer 
who  piles  20  tons  of  manure  on  the  ground  in  a corner  of  the 
barnyard  and  allows  it  to  leach  for  several  weeks,  loses  plant 
food  equivalent  to  about  $50.  A concrete  manure  pit  prevents 
this  loss,  improves  the  appearance  of  the  barnyard,  and  keeps  it 
clean  and  dry  enough  so  that  manure  may  be  hauled  out  to  the 
fields  at  any  time.  If  not  covered  with  a roof  it  receives  as  much 
rain  as  an  open  pile. 


Placing  The  Silo 


The  location  of  the  silo  will  affect  the  barn  plan.  Many  silos 
are  built  outside  the  barn  wall,  leaving  the  entire  area  of  the 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


barn  floor  for  stable.  The  silo  belongs  at  the  end  of  the  feed 
alley  so  that  feeding  from  the  silo  wilh  require  carrying  the  feed 
only  a short  distance.  A chute  2 to  3 feet  square  is  usually  pro- 
vided for  throwing  down  silage.  If  the  herd  is  large,  much 
labor  can  be  saved  if  a hopper  large  enough  to  hold  a day’s  sup- 
ply of  silage  is  built  at  the  bottom  of  the  chute  for  receiving 
the  silage.  From  this  hopper  the  silage  can  be  dumped  directly 
into  the  cart  and  thus  save  shoveling.  A feed  room  is  often 
built  between  the  bam  and  silo.  Since  dairy  cows  are  fed  con- 
siderable amounts  of  concentrates,  this  room  should  be  large 
enough  to  hold  at  least  a wagon  load  at  one  time.  If  no  other 
convenient  place  is  available  for  storing  a reserve,  such  as  a 
carload  or  a season’s  supply,  this  space  should  be  provided  in 
the  feed  room.  If  a driveway  is  provided  on  the  barn  floor 
above,  this  large  storage  space  and  bins  are  put  there,  the  grain 
can  be  delivered  by  gravity  to  small  boxes  in  the  feed  room  be- 
low by  means  of  chutes.  Feeding  the  silage  and  concentrates 
from  the  same  room  saves  time  in  feeding. 

The  Milk  House  Not  a Part  of  the  Barn 

The  room  in  which  milk  is  to  be  handled  should  not  be  en- 
closed within  the  walls  that  form  the  stable.  This  means  that 
the  milk  house  need  not  be  planned  nor  constructed  when  the 
barn  is  built.  It  is  desirable,  nevertheless,  to  plan  the  doors  of 
the  barn  so  that  a milk  house  can  be  built  either  as  an  addition 
or  as  a separate  building  conveniently  located  for  receiving  milk 
from  the  barn. 


Making  Good  Concrete 

In  many  parts  of  Wisconsin  good  sand  and  gravel  are  avail- 
able on  the  farm  or  nearby.  Then  the  farmer  can  build  perma- 
nent structures  of  concrete  at  a low  cost.  Concrete  is  best 
adapted  to  the  building  of  foundations,  barn  walls,  floors,  ma- 
nure pits,  silos,  root  cellars,  and  storage  tanks.  The  making  of 
good  concrete  requires  clean,  coarse  sand  and  clean,  well-graded 
gravel  as  well  as  thorough  mixing,  and  the  use  of  the  correct 
amount  of  water  and  cement.  Nearly  every  failure  of  rural 
concrete  construction  is  due  to  carelessness  or  ignorance  of  these 
simple  requirements.  To  test  the  sand  for  foreign  matter  fill 


Dairy  Barns 


31 


a two  quart  fruit  jar  with  sand  to  a point  5 inches  above  the 
bottom.  Fill  with  water  to  about  two-thirds  or  three-fourths 
the  height  of  the  jar.  Shake  the  contents  well  and  allow  them 
to  settle.  The  silt  or  clay  in  the  sand  will  accumulate  as  a 
layer  on  top  of  the  sand.  If  this  layer  of  silt  is  more  than 
inch  thick  the  sand  should  not  be  used  because  it  will  make  a 
weak  concrete.  Coarse  sand  makes  a stronger  concrete  than  fine 
sand.  If  the  latter  only  is  available  more  cement  will  be  needed 
to  make  a strong  concrete.  Screened  gravel  from  the  pit  will 
usually  be  well  graded.  Crushed  stone  screened  to  a uniform 
size  requires  from  5 to  10  per  cent  more  sand  and  cement  than 
a sample  containing  various  sizes. 

Too  much  v/ater  reduces 
the  strength  of  concrete.  A 
sloppy  mix  produces  concrete 
of  only  50  per  cent  to  75  per 
cent  the  strength  of  a quaky 
mix  assuming  that  equal 
amounts  of  cement  are  used 
in  each.  Make  the  concrete  • 
of  such  consistency  that  it 
will  stand  of  its  own  weight 
and  quake  like  jelly  when 
patted  with  a shovel.  Such  a 
mixture  is  placed  in  forms 
easily,  requires  little  tamp- 
ing, and  produces  a strong 
concrete  if  sufficient  cement  is  used. 

The  ratio  of  cement  to  sand  and  gravel  depends  on  the  use  to 
which  the  concrete  is  to  be  put.  Keinforced  concrete  requires  a 
1-2-4  mix, — one  part  by  volume  of  cement,  two  parts  of  sand 
and  four  parts  of  pebbles  or  crushed  stone.  A wall  or  the  lower 
course  of  a floor  is  usually  built  with  a 1-21/2-5  mix,  while  a 
]-3-6  mix  may  be  used  for  footings  and  heavy  foundations. 
Silos  or  tanks  for  water  storage  must  be  reinforced  to  prevent 
the  wall  from  cracking.  Openings  in  walls  should  be  reinforced 
along  the  sides  of  the  opening  and  across  the  corners  (Fig.  23) 
to  prevent  cracking.  Whenever  water  tightness  is  desired,  use 
a 1-2-^  mix,  or  even  richer.  Mixes  containing  less  cement  than 
a 1-3-6  ratio  are  often  used,  but  a weak  concrete  results  so  that 
their  use  should  be  discouraged. 


FIG.  2S.-OPENINGS  WELL  REINFORCED 

The  rods  are  put  .in  place  as  the  concrete 
is  poured. 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


Pit  Gravel  Should  be  Screened 

Sand  and  pebbles  in  pit  run  gravel  are  seldom  found  in  the 
correct  proportion  for  concrete  work.  Usually,  twice  the  de- 
sired amount  of  sand  is  present.  Since  the  strength  of  concrete 
varies  as  the  ratio  of  the  cement  to  sand,  it  is  evident  that  for  a 
given  strength,  a cubic  yard  of  concrete  made  from  pit-run 
gravel  must  contain  more  cement  than  a cubic  yard  of  concrete 
made  from  sand  and  pebbles  mixed  in  the  correct  proportion. 

The  saving  of  cement  that  can  be  made  by  screening  the 
gravel  usually  more  than  pays  for  the  extra  labor  involved. 
Where  pit-run  gravel  is  used  in  place  of  sand  and  pebbles,  the 
following  substitutions  are  often  recommended:  Five  parts  of 

pit-run  to  one  part  of  cement  for  a 1-3-6  mix : 41/4  parts  of  pit- 
run  to  one  part  of  cement  for  a l-2i^-5  mix:  and  3^  parts  of 
pit-run  to  one  part  of  cement  for  a 1-2-4  mix. 

A smooth  surface  may  be  obtained  on  the  side  of  the  wall  by 
spading  along  the  form  as  the  concrete  is  placed.  This  forces 
the  coarser  particles  toward  the  center  of  the  wall  and  allows 
the  finer  particles  to  form  a smooth  surface  at  the  form.  A con- 
crete barn  wall  is  usually  built  12  inches  thick,  a silo  wall  6 
inches,  and  walls  of  small  farm  structures  8 inches.  Concrete 
walls  less  than  8 inches  should  be  reinforced. 

Bonding  a layer  of  concrete  to  one  previously  poured  requires 
certain  precautions  in  order  to  obtain  a water-tight  joint.  The 
old  surface  should  not  be  smoothed  with  a trowel  but  should  be 
left  rough.  Before  placing  the  new  concrete,  thoroughly  clean 
and  wet  the  old  concrete  and  cover  it  with  a coat  of  cement  with- 
out sand  or  pebbles  and  mixed  with  enough  water  to  be  easily 
applied  with  a trowel.  Sharp  pebbles  or  iron  rods  projecting 
from  the  old  concrete  into  the  new  also  aid  in  bonding  the  two 
surfaces. 

New  concrete  poured  in  hot  weather  should  be  kept  covered 
with  moist  straw  or  earth  for  a week  or  two,  and  wet  once  a 
day  during  this  period.  Concrete  construction  in  freezing 
weather  is  poor  practice  unless  the  work  is  in  charge  of  some 
one  familiar  with  the  precautions  necessary  under  these  condi- 
tions. 


Dairy  Barns 


33 


Rods  Protect  Against  Lightning 

Lightning  rods  protect  farm  buildings.  Statistics  compiled 
by  insurance  companies  show  that  properly  rodded  buildings 
are  practically  safe  from  damage  by  lightning.  A lightning  rod 
system,  however,  is  of  little  value,  unless  properly  installed. 
This  work  should  be  directed  by  an  experienced  workman  and 
several  factors  carefully  considered. 

Ground  connections  should  be  put  down  to  permanent  mois- 
ture in  a hole  about  10  feet  deep  and  filled  with  earth.  If  this 
is  impossible  because  of  rock  near  the  surface,  the  cable  may  be 
fastened  to  a copper  plate  and  the  plate  buried  as  deeply  as 
possible.  It  is  well  in  this  case  to  surround  the  plate  with  a 
bed  of  charcoal  as  this  tends  to  retain  moisture  and  provide  a 
moist  ground  c6nnection. 

A shallow  ground  or  loose  cable  connection  makes  many  light- 
ning rods  worthless.  These  defects  are  hard  to  detect  except 
while  the  work  is  being  done.  The  hole  in  which  the  grounds 
are  buried  should  not  be  filled  until  a good  connection  is  certain. 

All  cables  should  be  in  a continuous  circuit.  A cable  attached 
to  the  ridge  will  connect  all  points  along  the  ridge  to  a ground 
at  either  end.  The  number  of  cables  that  should  be  grounded 
depends  on  the  shape  of  the  building.  An  oblong  building  re- 
quires at  least  two;  an  L-  or  T-shaped  building  three;  and  a 
U-shaped  building  four.  The  cable  is  fastened  to  the  building 
by  metal  staples  or  clips.  All  metal  parts  of  the  building  such 
as  gutters,  downspouts,  water  and  gas  pipes,  hay  and  other  car- 
rier tracks  should  be  connected  to  the  cables  or  grounded  at  two 
points.  In  making  all  connections  avoid  sharp  turns  so  as  to 
prevent  side  fiashes.  Copper,  aluminum  or  iron  cable  of  3,  2^, 
or  5 ounces  to  the  foot  respectively,  may  be  used.  Iron  is  the 
least  desirable  ^f  the  three,  unless  heavily  galvanized,  because 
it  corrodes  rapidly. 

Points  should  be  placed  near  the  ends  of  the  building,  at  each 
cupola  and  chimney  and  at  intervals  not  greater  than  20  feet 
along  the  ridge.  Each  point  should  extend  from  3 to  5 feet 
above  the  ridge  of  the  roof  with  its  base  firmly  attached  to  the 
cable.  The  shape  of  the  point  is  not  important  but  is  must  be 
sharp. 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  325 


Available  Building  Plans 


Plans  and  bills  of  material  for  barns  and  other  farm  buildings 
may  be  secured  from  the  Department  of  Agricultural  Engineer- 
ing of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  of  the  University 
H.  Li.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Station 


J.  A.  James,  Asst.  Dean. 

K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Extension  Service 


W'.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 

3.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chemistry  . 

A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 


F.  A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 

3-.  Bohstedt,  Animal  Husbandry 

L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

3.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 

I.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  W,  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 

3.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy  Husbandry 

a.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

W.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

r.  G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 

V.  J.  Geib,  Soils 

3.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 

L,.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

F.  B.  Hadley,  3n  charge  of  Veterinary  Science 
r.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry 
P.  N.  Harmer,  Soils 

E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chemistry 

3.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Bacteriology 
3.  S.  Hean,  Librarian 

B.  H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Economics 
W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of  Agr.  Jour- 
nalism 

R.  S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 
3.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Animal  Husbandry 
I.  A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Education 

G.  Johnson,  Plant  Pathology 

I.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

3.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Engineering 
Li.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pathology 
3.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
3.  J.  Kraus,  Plant  Pathology 

3.  D.  Leith,  Agronomy 
3.  W.  Lindstrom,  Genetics 
r.  Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 

\bby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home  Economics 

J.  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 

I.  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticulture 
R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 
F.  B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

3.  B.  Mortimer, 'Agronomy 

F.  L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

W".  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
3RIFFITH  Richards,  Soils 
R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 

J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 


H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 

H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 

H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 

A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 

W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 

J.  SwBNEHART,  Agr.  Engineering  (Bayfield) 

W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughn,  Plant  Pathology 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic  Entomol- 
ogy 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 

Freda  M.  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

Marguerite  Davis,  Home  Economics 

J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

J.  I.  Hambleton,  Economic  Entomology 

R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

J.  H.  Kolb,  Agr.  Economics 
Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  Journalism 
E.  J.  Malloy,  Soils 

S.  W.  Mendum,  Agr.  Economics 
E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  C.  Thomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 
W.  B.  Tisdale,  Plant  Pathology 


J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Chemistry  and  Bacteriology 

R.  M.  Bethke,  Genetics 

Ruth  Bitterman,  Plant  Pathology 
O.  R.  Brunkow,  Agr.  Chemistry 

S.  Epstein,  Agr.  Chemistry 

N.  S.  Fish,  Agr.  Engineering 
C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 

O.  N.  Jo^NSON,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

L.  KL  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 
A.  E.  Koehler,  Agr.  Chemistry 
S.  Lepkovsky,  Agr.  Chemistry 
J.  L.  Lush,  Genetics 
R.  O.  Nafziger,  Agr.  Journalism 
Meta  Schroeder,  Agr.  Bact. 

Mariana  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 

P.  W.  Senn,  Genetics 

W.  S.  Smith,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
J.  H.  VerHulst,  Agr.  Chemistry 
C.  E.  Walsh,  Agr.  Engineering 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 

630.7W75B  C001 

BULLETIN.  MADISON 
311-325  1920-21 


2 019929493 


